MME 2501 ENGINEERING MATERIALS DR ZAHURIN HALIM

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

After studying this chapter you must be able to:

Define orally and in written of engineering stress and engineering strain. Able to evaluate and analyze engineering stressstrain diagram and determining a) the modulus of elasticity b) the yield strength c) the tensile strength and d) estimate the percent elongation Calculate and solve the ductility of a metal in terms of both elongation and percent reduction of a metal that is loaded in tension to fracture.
2

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY (II)

After studying this chapter you must be able to:
Able to describe orally and in written of the changes in specimen profile to the point of fracture for the tensile deformation of a ductile and brittle cylinder. Define orally and in written of what is meant by hardness and able to differentiate it with strength of materials. Able to name the two most common hardness testing technique and to note differences between
them. 3

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
Why we need to study this topic? Materials in service are subjected to forces or loads ; Example:

In such situations it is necessary to know the characteristics of material and design the member from which it is made such that any resulting deformation will not be excessive and fracture will not occur.

STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR
Metals undergo deformation under uniaxial tensile force. Elastic deformation: Metal returns to its original dimension after tensile Force is removed.

STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR
Plastic deformation: The Metal is deformed to such an extent such that it cannot return to its original dimension

ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress,

Ft
Area, A

Ft

Area, A

Fs Fs

Ft W! Ao

Ft

original area before loading

Fs X! Ao Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2

Ft

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

S mp e tension: cable

o = cross sectional rea (when unloaded)

Ski lift

W!
o
8

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Simple Compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

Balanced Rock, Arches National Park

F W! Ao

ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:

H/

H I ! Lo
Shear strain:

wo
HL /

Lo
H/ HL /

HL IL ! wo

U/ K = tan U
T/ - U
Strain is always dimensionless.

T/

U/

10

ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds stretch return to initial

H F
Elastic means reversible!

Linear elastic Non-Linearelastic

H
11
2

PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds stretch & planes shear

planes still sheared

Helastic + plastic

Hplastic

F
F
lastic means permanent!
linear elastic
linear elastic

Hplastic

H
12
3

STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Typical tensile specimen Typical tensile test machine
load cell
Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister 6e.

extensometer

specimen

moving cross head gauge (portion of sample with length reduced cross section) Other types of tests: --compression: brittle materials (e.g., concrete) --torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts.

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and roperties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)

13

LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Modulus of Elasticity, E: (also known as Young's modulus) Hooke's Law:

W E
1
Linearelastic

F
I

W=EI
oisson's ratio, R:

IL R I metals: R ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25 polymers: ~0.40
Units: E: [G a] or [psi] R: dimensionless

IL I -R 1 F
simple tension test

14
10

OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Elastic Shear modulus, G:

X
1

M
G K
simple torsion test

X=GK
Elastic Bulk modulus, K:

M P (
o -K

P (V P Vo 1
P
pressure test: Init. vol =Vo. Vol chg. = (V

P= -K

Special relations for isotropic materials:

2(1  R)

K!

3(1  2 R)
15
11

YOUNGS MODULI: COMPARISON

1200 1000 800 600 400

200

Si crystal
<100>

<111>

Aramid fibers only

lass fibers only

FRE(|| fibers)*

20
10 8 6 4

raphite

2 1 0.8 . 0.
.2

Polyester PET PS P PP DP E

FRE( fibers) * AFRE( fibers) *

Epoxy only

PTF E

DPE

10 9 Pa

oncrete

FRE*

FRE * FRE( fibers)*

ood( grain)

100 80 60 40

lass -soda

AFRE(|| fibers)*

E(GPa)

Tungsten Molybdenum Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum u alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, old Aluminum Ma nesium, Tin

Metals Alloys

Graphite Composites eramics Polymers /fibers Semicond

Diamond Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride

arbon fibers only

FRE(|| fibers)*

Eceramics > Emetals >> Epolymers

ased on data in Table B2, Callister 6e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.

16
12

USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC RELATIONS

Simple tension: Simple torsion:

H ! FL o
o

H ! R F o
L
o

2 Lo E! Tr
o =moment E = n le of t ist Lo
2r o

F
H/2 o
o

Lo
H/2 HL/2

HL/2

teri l, eometric, nd lo din p r meters ll contribute to deflection. Lar er elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
17
13

PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION

(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)
Simple tension test:

tensile stress,W

lasti lasti at larger stress

lasti initiall
permanent (plasti ) after load is remo ed

Ip

engineering strain,I
plasti strain
18
14

YIELD STRENGTH, Wy
Stress at which noticeable p astic deformation has occurred. when Ip = 0.002

tensile stress,W

Wy

engineering strain,I

Ip = 0.002
19
15

YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON

Metals/ Alloys 2000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Polymers Semicond Composites/ fibers
Steel (4140) qt

Yield strength, Wy (MPa)

700 600 00 400 300 200

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a W (pure) Cu (71500) cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140) a Steel (1020) cd Al (6061) ag Steel (1020) hr Ti (pure)a Ta (pure) Cu (71500) hr

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

1000

Wy ceramics) >> Wy metals) >> Wy polymers)

Room T values
B sed on d ta in T ble B4, C llister 6e. = nnealed hr = hot rolled g = ged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked t = uenched tempered

Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,

20
Tin (pure)

DPE

10

30

PP HDPE

70 60 0 40

dry

Al (6061) a

PC Nylon 6,6 PET P C humid

100

 

20
16

TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
Ma imum possible engineering stress in tension.

TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister 6e.

engineering stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. olymers: occurs when polymer backbones are

aligned and about to break.

17

21

TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON

Metals/ Alloys 5000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Polymers Semicond Composites/ fibers
C fibers Aramid fib E-glass fib Steel (4140) qt Diamond W (pure) a Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a Steel (4140) Si nitride Cu (71500) cw hr Cu (71500) Al oxide Steel (1020) ag Al (6061) a Ti (pure) Ta (pure) Al (6061) a Si crystal
<100>

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

3000 2000 1000

AFRE(|| fiber) GFRE(|| fiber) CFRE(|| fiber)

300 200 100 40 30 20

TS(ceram) TS(met) TS(comp) >> TS(poly)

Room T values

Graphite

LDPE

"

10

$ $

Glass-soda Concrete

Nylon 6,6 PC PET P C PP HDPE

Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e. GFRE( fiber) a = annealed CFRE( fiber) AFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched tempered AFRE, GFRE, CFRE = aramid, glass, carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy wood( fiber) composites, with 60 vol% fibers. 22
wood(|| fiber)

DUCTILITY,
lastic tensile strain at failure:

EL
L f  Lo ! x100 Lo

n ineerin tensile stress

Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 6e.

s aller rittle if

L L<5%)
Lo Ao Af

lar er %EL uctile if %EL>5%)

Lf

Another uctility Note:

n ineerin tensile strainI  f easure: % !

00

%AR and %EL are often comparable. --Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume. --%AR %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
19

23

TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of material Appro imate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering tensile stress W

smaller toughness ceramics)

larger toughness metals P Cs)

smaller toughnessunreinforced polymers

Engineering tensile strain I

24
20

HARDNESS
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:

--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. --better wear properties.

e.g. 10mm sphere apply known force 1 to 1000g) measure si e of indent after removing load

D
most plastics brasses l alloys

d
easy to machine steels file hard

Smaller indents mean larger hardness.

cutting tools nitrided steels

diamond

increasing hardness
dapted from Fig. 6.1 , Callister 6e. Fig. 6.1 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, ngineering roperties and pplications of lastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)

&

'

) &

25
21

HARDNESS
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to permanent (plastic) deformation. General procedure: deformation.

Press the indenter that is harder than the metal Into metal surface.

Withdraw the indenter

Measure hardness by measuring depth or width of indentation.

Rockwell hardness tester

26
21

27

HARDENING
An increase in Wy due to plastic deformation.

Wy 1 Wy

large hardening

small hardening
d unl oa
reload

I
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

WT ! C IT
true stress (F/A)

hardening e ponent: n=0.15 (some steels) to n=0.5 (some copper) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
28
22

DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit. Factor of safety, N

W working !
Ex:

Wy
N

Often N is between 1.2 and 4

Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5.

W worki
220 , 000 N   T d 2 / 4   
5

W !

1045 plain carbon steel: W y=310 Pa TS=565 Pa F = 220,000N

Lo

29
23

SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). lastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches Wy. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

30

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

After studying this chapter you must be able to:
Describe orally and in written the process of fracture of metals and differentiate between ductile and brittle fracture Define fracture toughness in terms of (a) a brief statement, and (b) an equation; define all parameters in this equation. Explain fracture toughness property is used in engineering design instead of toughness Able to make distinctions between stress intensity factor, fracture toughness, and plane strain fracture toughness Able to name and describe at least one impact fracture testing techniques

31

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

After studying this chapter you must be able to:
Define fatigue loading and failure in materials as well as describe the parameters that are used to characterise fluctuating stresses. Enumerate the factors that affect the fatigue strength of materials Describe creep, creep test and the use of Larsen-Miller parameter in design for determination of time to stress rupture. Describe why analysis of a failed component is important and what are the steps taken in the failure analysis process.

32

FAILURE OF METALS
 Failure may be defined as the inability of a materials or a component to: to: 1. Perform the intended function 2. Meet performance criteria although it may be still operational 3. Perform safely and reliably even after deterioration  Examples of situations in which a component has failed are: Yielding, wear, buckling (elastic instability), corrosion and fracture  Fracture results in separation of stressed solid into two or more parts.  Ductile fracture : High plastic deformation & slow crack Brittle fracture proceeds along characteristics propagation. propagation. crystallographic planes called cleavage planes and has rapid crack propagations (catastrophic failure)
33
24

DUCTILE FRACTURE
Three distinct stages of ductile fracture: 1. The specimen forms a neck, and cavities form within the necked region (Figure (a) and (b)) 2. The cavities in the neck coalesce into a crack in the center of the specimen and propagate toward the surface of the specimen and in a direction perpendicular to the applied stress (Figure (c)) 3. When the crack nears the surface, the direction of the crack changes to 45r to the tensile axis and a cup cone fracture results (Figure (d) and (e))

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

34

DUCTILE FRACTURE

Internal cracking in the necked region of polycrystalline specimen of high purity copper.
Typical engineering stress-strain behaviour to fracture, point F. The tensile strength TS is indicate at point M. The circular insets represent the geometry of the deformed specimen at various points along the curve
35

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

BRITTLE FRACTURE
Brittle fracture in metals is believed to take place in three stages: 1.Plastic deformation concentrates dislocations along slip planes at obstacles 2.Shear stresses build up in places where dislocations are blocked, and as a result microcracks are nucleated 3.Further stress propagates the microcracks, and stored elastic strain energy may also contribute to the propagation of the cracks
KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

36

COMPARISON BETWEEN BRITTLE AND DUCTILE FRACTURE

Ductile fracture

Schematic representations of tensile stress-strain behaviour for brittle and ductile materials loaded to fracture

Brittle fracture

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

37

COMPARISON BETWEEN BRITTLE AND DUCTILE FRACTURE

Scanning Electron Micrograph showing conical equiaxed dimples produced during the fracture of a spring steel specimen. These dimples which are specimen. formed during the microvoid coalescence of the fracture, are indicative of a ductile fracture SEM of ductile fracture Scanning Electron Micrograph showing an intergranular fracture surface occur during the brittle fracture. fracture. For most brittle crystalline materials crack propagation corresponds to the successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes; such a process is termed planes; cleavage SEM of brittle fracture

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

38

BRITTLE FRACTURE
Brittle fractures are due to defects like  Folds  Undesirable grain flow  Porosity  Tears and Cracks  Corrosion damage  Embrittlement due to atomic hydrogen At low operating temperature, ductile to brittle transition takes place

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

39

TOUGHNESS AND IMPACT TESTING

Toughness is a measure of energy absorbed before failure. Impact test measures the ability of metal to absorb impact. Toughness is measured using impact testing machine

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

40

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Also used to find the temperature range for ductile to brittle transition.

Sinking of Titanic: Titanic was made up of steel which has ductile to brittle transition temperature 320C. On the day of sinking, sea temperature was 20C which made the the structure highly brittle and susceptible to more damage.
41

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
 Fracture toughness is the ressistance of a material to fast crack propagation and is the critical toughness of a material in relation to the opening of a crack in a plane strain

K1 ! YW Ta
K1 = Stress intensity factor. = Applied stress. a = edge crack length Y = geometric constant.

KIc = critical value of stress intensity factor.(Fracture toughness)

Example: Al 2024 T851 26.2MPam1/2 4340 alloy steel 60.4MPam1/2

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

42

NOTCH IMPACT TOUGHNESS

NotchNotch-impact toughness is the energy (per unit area) absorbed in fracturing a test-piece containing a notch of known geometry when testsubjected to impact loading notch is machined in a specimen of sufficient thickness B. B>>a plain strain condition. B = 2.5(KIc/Yield strength)2 2.5(K KIC is known as the plane strain fracture KIC = Y ( a) ( Specimen is tensile tested. Higher the KIc value, more ductile the metal is. Used in design to find allowable flaw size.
KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

43

FATIGUE OF METALS : DEFINITION

Fatigue is the response of a material to dynamic loading conditions. A material subjected to repeated cyclical stressing may fail after a number of cycles even though the maximum stress in any one cycle is considerably less than fracture stress of the material, as determined in short term static tests. Fatigue testing generally involves subjecting a test piece to alternating stress cycles with a mean stress of zero, the results being plotted of an S-N curve.

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

44

FATIGUE OF METALS
 Metals often fail at much lower stress at cyclic loading compared to static loading. loading.

 Crack nucleates at region of stress concentration and propagates due to cyclic loading.  Failure occurs when cross sectional area of the metal too small to withstand applied load. load.

Fracture started here

Fatigue fractured surface of keyed shaft

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

Final rupture
45

FATIGUES TESTING
 Alternating compression and tension load is applied on metal piece tapered towards center.

 Stress to cause failure S and number of cycles required N are plotted to form SN curve.
46

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

CYCLIC STRESSES
 Different types of stress cycles are possible (axial, torsional and flexural).

Mean stress = W m !

W max  W min
2

Stress amplitude = W a !

W max  W min

Stress range = W r ! W max  W min

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

Stress range = R !

W min W max
47

STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN FATIGUE PROCESS

 Crack initiation first occurs.  Reversed directions of crack initiation caused surface ridges and groves called slipband extrusion and intrusion. intrusion.  This is stage I and is very slow (10-10 m/cycle).  Crack growth changes direction to be perpendiperpendicular to maximum tensile stress (rate microns/sec).  Sample ruptures by ductile failure when remaining crosscross-sectional area is small to Persistent slip bands withstand the stress. In copper crystal

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

48

FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE STRENGTH

 Stress concentration: Fatigue strength is reduced by stress concentration.  Surface roughness: Smoother surface increases the fatigue strength.  Surface condition: Surface treatments like carburizing and nitriding increases fatigue life.  Environment: Chemically reactive environment, which might result in corrosion, decreases fatigue life.

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

49

CREEP: DEFINITION

Creep is the continued slow straining of a material under constant load. This is of consequence with many thermoplastics at ordinary temperatures but does not become significant for ceramics, glasses and the majority of metallic materials until the temperature is raised. A typical creep curve showing the development of strain with time at a constant stress and temperature is shown in figure in next slide. The rate of steady state creep is affected by variations of stress and temperature.

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

50

CREEP IN METALS
Creep is progressive deformation under constant stress. Important in high temperature applications. applications. Primary creep: creep rate decreases with time due to strain hardening. Secondary creep: Creep rate is constant due to simultaneous strain hardhardening and recovery process. process. Tertiary creep: Creep rate increases with time leading to necking and fracture. fracture.
KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

51

CREEP TEST
Creep test determines the effect of temperature and stress on creep rate.  Metals are tested at constant stress at different temperature & constant temperature with different stress. 

High temperature or stress

Medium temperature or stress

Low temperature or stress

Creep strength: Stress to produce Minimum creep rate of 10-5%/h At a given temperature.
52

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

CREEP RUPTURE TEST

  Creep rupture test is same as creep test but aimed at failing the specimen. Plotted as log stress versus log rupture time. Time for stress rupture decreases with increased stress and temperature.

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

53

LARSEN MILLER PARAMETER

 Larsen Miller parameter is used to represent creep-stress rupture creepdata. P(LarsenP(Larsen-Miller) = T[log tr + C] T = temperature(K), tr = stress-rupture time h stressC = Constant (order of 20) Also, or P(LarsenP(Larsen-Miller) = [T(0C) + 273(20+log tr) P(LarsenP(Larsen-Miller) = [T(0F) + 460(20+log tr)

 At a given stress level, the log time to stress rupture plus constant multiplied by temperature remains constant for a given material.

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

54

LARSEN MILLER PARAMETER

If two variables of time to rupture, temperature and stress are known, 3rd parameter that fits L.M. parameter can be determined.

Example: For alloy CM, at 207 MPa, LM parameter is 27.8 x 103 K Then if temperature is known, time to rupture can be found. found.

KULLIYYAH OF ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

55

THAN YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

56