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Lecture 7: Z-transform
Instructor: Dr. Gleb V. Tcheslavski Contact: gleb@ee.lamar.edu Office Hours: Room 2030 Class web site: http://ee.lamar.edu/gleb/ds p/index.htm
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Definitions
Z-transform converts a discrete-time signal into a complex frequency-domain representation. It is similar to the Laplace transform for continuous signals.
X ( z ) | xn z
n
n
(7.2.1)
If (where) it exists!
z ! re j[
z ! e j[
( z) p
e
! x e
j[ n n
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j[ n
(7.2.2)
If it exists!
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xn z n
n
(7.3.1)
Since z is complex:
z ! re j[
(7.3.2)
X ( z ) ! xn r n
e j[ n ! xn r n e j[ n
n n
(7.3.3)
r r
r z
r r
(7.3.4) (7.3.5)
r+
Re
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X ( z ) | xn z n
n
n !
n 1
X ( z ) ! a un z
n n
n
! az
n !0
for az 1
1 z " a
ROC
We can modify (7.5.1) as
( z) !
N ( z )!0 z ! 0 zero( s ) D ( z )!0 z ! a pole( s )
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z N ( z) ! z a D( z )
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xn z n
1 1 az 1
Im
x
(7.5.1)
Re
(7.5.2)
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
X ( z ) ! a u n 1 z
n n
n
1
! az
m !1
1 m
! a z
m !1
a 1 z z ! ! 1 1 a z z a
Im
x
(7.6.1)
for a 1 z
1 z
Re
Conclusion 1: z-transform exists only within the ROC! Conclusion 2: z-transform and ROC uniquely specify the signal. Conclusion 3: poles cannot exist in the ROC; only on its boundary. Note: if the ROC contains the unit circle (|z| = 1), the system is stable.
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X ( z ) | xn z n
n
a y
i i ! 2 i !
n i
! b j xn - j
j ! 1
a i z iY ( z ) ! b j z j
j !
ai z i
i !0
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( z) !
Y ( z) ! X (z)
b z
j j !0
xn m p xn m z ( n ) z ! {l ! n m} ! z
xl z l ! z m ( z )
l
(7.7.1)
(7.7.2)
(z)
(7.7.3)
(7.7.4)
j
! hn z n
n
(7.7.5)
Rational z-transform
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
Frequently, a z-transform can be described as a rational function, i.e. a ratio of two polynomials in z-1: P ( z ) n0 n1 z 1 ... nM 1 z ( M 1) nM z M (7.8.1) (z) ! ! 1 ( N 1) N ( z ) d 0 d1 z ... d N 1 z dN z
Here M and N are the degrees of the numerators and denominators polynomials. An alternative representation is a ratio of two polynomials in z:
M n1 z ( M 1) ... nM 1 z nM P( z ) N M
n0 z ( z) ! ! z ( z) d 0 z N d1 z N 1 ... d N 1 z d N
(7.8.2)
n0 (1 z j z 1 ) ( z) ! d 0 (1 pi z 1 )
i !1
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n0 ( z z j )
! z ( N M )
j !1 N
zeros: numerator = 0
j !1 N
d 0 ( z pi )
i !1
(7.8.3)
Poles: denominator = 0
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Y ( z) 1 ( z) ! ! zY z
E Y z
! X z
X ( z) z E
The difference equation is:
(7.9.1)
yn 1 E yn ! xn yn ! E yn 1 xn 1
(7.9.2)
hn ! E hn 1 H n 1
(7.9.3) (7.9.4)
Iff |E| < 1, hn decays as npg and the system is BIBO stable; otherwise, hn grows without limits. Therefore, poles of a stable system (and signals in fact) must be inside the unit circle. Zeros may be placed anywhere. Zeros at the origin produce a time delay.
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X ( z ) | xn z n
n
hn
(7.10.1)
H ( z) !
b z
j
j
b0 z
!
M
a z
i i !0
j !0 N
(z z )
j j !1 N
(7.10.2)
i
a0 z N ( z pi )
i !1
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X ( z ) | xn z n
n
e
j[
[k !
2T k p
Zero-padded When the frequency approaches a pole, the frequency response has a local maximum, a zero forces the response to a local minimum. For real systems, poles and zeros are symmetrical with respect to the real axis.
1.5 M agnitude of H ([)
M P FT _bm a0 ! N P FT _ak a0
(7.11.1)
0.5
0.1
0.4
0.5
pole
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zero
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S ( z ) ! b ( z )S ( z ) !zI
1 T Y ( z ) ! c zI
b ( z ) d ( z ) 1 H ( z ) ! c T zI
b d
zI
1
b ( z)
(7.12.2) (7.12.3)
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b
m !0 N k !0
z m
!
k
b0 z
M
(z z )
j j !1 N
( z) !
a z
k
a0 z N ( z pi )
i !1
b0 ( M N ) z a0
(z z
m !1 N k !1
zeros
m
)
(7.13.1)
(z p )
k
poles
(7.13.2)
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(7.14.1)
All poles are at z = 0: a nest of poles ROC: the entire z-plane except of the origin (z = 0). FIR filters are stable.
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a z
k k !0
k
(7.15.1)
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ak z k
k !0
(7.16.1)
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On test signals
Y ( z ) ! H ( z ) X ( z )p yn ! hn xn
z
(7.17.1)
H n phn
(7.17.2)
% xn ! xk H n k p yn
k
(7.17.3)
Calculate
yn ! xk hn k
k
and compare to
% yn
We dont need any other that a delta function test signals since a unit-pulse response is a complete systems description.
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G(z) !
n! M
gn z n
(7.18.1)
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G( z) !
n! M
gn z n !
n! M
1
gn z n gn z n
n !0
(7.19.1)
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G( z) !
n ! g
gn z n !
n ! g
1
gn z n gn z n
n !0
(7.20.1)
Converges at z0
Blows up at z = 0
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Properties
from Mitra
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Common pairs
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Inverse z-transform
1 xn ! 2T j ic ( z ) z n 1dz
(7.23.1)
Where C is a counterclockwise closed path encircling the origin and is entirely in the ROC. Contour C must encircle all the poles of X(z). In general, there is no simple way to compute (7.23.1) A special case: C is the unit circle (can be used when the ROC includes the unit circle). The inverse z-transform reduces to the IDTFT.
1 xn ! 2T
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X e j[ e j[n d[
(7.23.2)
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Inverse z-transform
A. Via Cauchy residue theorem
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
xn ! Vi
i
(7.24.1)
For all poles of X(z)zn-1 inside C (contour of integration) Where Vi are the residues of X(z)zn-1 for a pole of multiplicity k:
1 d k 1Ji ( z ) Vi ! (k 1)! dz k 1 z ! p
n 1
(7.24.2)
i
Residue function:
Ji ( z ) ! X ( z ) z
z pi
k
(7.24.3)
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X ( z ) | xn z n
n
z ( z) ! ; a za
Im
x
V a n u 0 z n 1 zn 1 1 xn ! iC z a z dz ! 2T j iC z a dz ! a V0 n 0 V 2T j
V0 is a residue of X(z)z-n-1 at z=0 involves pole of multiplicity n wnen n < 0.
C Re
1 d k 1 zn ( z a)k Va ! ! zn (k 1)! dz k 1 z a k !1
z!a
! an
multiplicity
1 dk 1 k (z a)1 1 Let n ! k(n 0)V0 ! z ! (1)(2)...((k 1))(z a)k ! ak ! an z!0 zk (k 1)! dzk1 (k 1)!
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Inverse z-transform
B. Via recognition (table look-up)
Sometimes, the z-transform can be modified such way that it can be found in a table Example:
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
( z) ! e
a z g n
a z
g a n n a a 1 X ( z) ! e ! ! z ; z n!0 n ! n !0 z n !
1 z " a
Therefore:
an xn ! un n!
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Inverse z-transform
C. Via long division
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
1. Right-sided z-transform sequences can be expanded into a power series in z-1. The coefficient multiplying z-n is the nth sample of the inverse z-transform. Example: z 2 2 z 1 2 X ( z) ! ; z " 1 1 z 1 Lower powers first: and long division: 2 2 z 1 z 2 ( z) ! ; z 1 1 z
2 z 2 z 3 z 4 ...
1 z 12 2 z 1 z 2 |
2 2 z 1
xn ! {2,0,1, 1,1,...}
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4
z 2 z 2 z 3
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Inverse z-transform
2. Left-sided z-transform sequences into a power series in z1 Example: z 2 2 z 1 2 X ( z) ! ; z 1 z 1 1
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
X ( z )!z 1 1 z z 2 z 3 z 4 ...
x1 x0 x-1 x-2 x-3 x-4
Non-causal
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Inverse z-transform
Example: 1 z 2 2 z 1 2 ; X ( z ) ! 1 z 1
z 1 2
2 z 1
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
Example:
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Inverse z-transform
D. Via partial fraction expansion (PFE)
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
LetG ( z ) !
N (z) ;r D( z )
r
(7.30.1)
If the degree of the numerator is equal or greater than the degree of the denominator: M u N, G(z) is an improper polynomial. Then:
N ( z ) M N l N1 ( z ) G(z) ! ! cl z D( z ) l !0 D( z )
A proper fraction: M1 < N
M N
(7.30.2)
Then:
G( z) !
l !0
cl z
l
Vl 1 pl z 1 l !1
(7.30.3)
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Inverse z-transform
Here Vl is a residue
X ( z ) | xn z n
n
Vl ! ( z pl )G ( z ) z n l
poles Therefore:
M N
z ! pl
(7.31.1)
gn !
cH
l l !0
n l
(7.31.2)
This method is suitable for complex poles. Problem: large polynomials are hard to manipulate
??QUESTIONS??
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