Grammar Basics Workshop

Presented by the Southeast Writing Center

Fragments
Definition: A fragment is a phrase that is not a complete sentence, and is punctuated without being completed or joined to a complete sentence. To be complete, a sentence must have, at the very least, a subject and a verb. Fragments occur when either the subject or the verb is omitted.  Example of a fragment in which the subject has been omitted: And drove to work in her new car. This phrase is a fragment because there is no subject. We have no idea who went to work in the car.  Example of a fragment in which the verb has been omitted: The man with the heavy coat and big shoes. This phrase is a fragment because there is no action being done. We have no idea what the man does.  Example of a fragment that contains neither subject or verb. On the table with the vase of roses. Here, we have no idea what is on the table, nor do we have any idea what it is doing.


Repairing Fragments


Most fragments can be fixed in one of two ways. The fragment can either be incorporated into an existing sentence, or added to, so that it is complete. Let s look at the examples we have used:

And drove to work in her new car was the fragment that lacked a subject, or doer of the action. If the sentence before this was Angela locked the front door, then all we need to do is combine the two sentences to give a subject to the fragment. Angela locked the front door and drove to work in her new car.

Repairing Fragments (cont.)



Similarly, the fragment that lacked a verb, the man with the heavy coat and big shoes, can either be incorporated into an existing sentence or simply have a verb added to it. Let s add a verb.

The man with the heavy coat and big shoes ran past the building and into the alley. Now it is a complete sentence with a subject and a verb.

Repairing Fragments (cont.)



Another way to fix a fragment is to put two subordinate clauses together. A subordinate clause sounds like a sentence because it has a subject and a verb, but it begins with a word that makes it subordinate. These are some of the most common of these words:

Repairing Fragments (cont.)



after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, than, that, unless, until, when where, whether, which, while, who, and why A more complete list can be found in Rules for Writers on page 151.

Repairing Fragments (cont.)



Here is an example of a subordinate clause as a fragment:

After they understood the problem

Corrected:
After they understood the problem, the politicians were able to agree on a solution.

Repairing Fragments(cont.)


Another kind of a fragment is a phrase.

For example: The English department is looking for a new teacher. Preferably a writing teacher. The phrase in italics is a fragment that can be joined to the sentence before it, separated by a comma.

Corrected:
The English department is looking for a new teacher, preferably a writing teacher.

Run-on Sentences


Definition: a group of independent clauses that has not been joined correctly. Independent clauses, if combined into one sentence, must be combined in one of two ways:
 

With a comma and a coordinating conjunction With a semicolon.

Run-on Sentences (cont.)



Two clauses combined with no punctuation form a type of run on that is called a fused sentence. Amanda walked into the mall she bought a pair of shoes. To correct this fused sentence, we can add a comma and conjunction or a semicolon.
Amanda walked into the mall, and she bought a pair of shoes.

Or:
Amanda walked into the mall; she bought a pair of shoes.

Run-on Sentences (cont.)



Two independent clauses that are only joined with a comma is a type of run-on that is called a comma splice. Example:
Albert typed his paper at the last minute, he made a low grade.

Repairing a Comma Splice



There are three ways to correct a comma splice:

1. Use a coordinating conjunction and a comma Albert typed his paper at the last minute, so he made a low grade. 2. Use a semi colon Albert typed his paper at the last minute; he made a low grade.

Repairing a Comma Splice (cont.)

3. The third way to correct a comma splice is simply to make each independent clause a sentence on its own by inserting a period and capital letter where appropriate.
Albert typed his paper at the last minute. He made a low grade.

Parallel Structure


Parallelism is the repetition of a grammatical structure that is used to emphasize the similarity among compared ideas. Elements of your sentence that are alike in function should also be alike in construction. When comparing people or objects, use only similar nouns. When comparing actions, use only similarly constructed verbs.
Susan usually spent the afternoons talking on the phone, cleaning the house and walked the dog. In this example, Susan is performing three actions, but the verbs used are not similarly constructed. Here is a correct example:  Susan usually spent the afternoons talking on the phone, cleaning the house and walking the dog. Each verb used in this sentence follows the same form.


Parallel Structure (cont.)



In the same way, when comparing people, places or objects, use only nouns and use similar ones. In this article, the author discusses nightmares, sleep disorders, and making them go away. The phrase making them go away, is a verb phrase that does not match the plural nouns used in the first part of the list. Here is one example of how to correct this nonparallel structure. In this article, the author discusses nightmares, sleep disorders and methods of prevention. Here, we have added methods of prevention, because methods is a plural noun, as are nightmares and sleep disorders.

Point of View


Point of view is the perspective from which a story or piece of writing is being presented. English has three points of view: first, second and third person.  First person is used to show the writer s personal involvement in the work and is used when most of what you are writing about comes from personal experience. Examples: I, me, my, mine these place the perspective and focus on the actions of the author. First person is used for personal narratives.


Second person is used to instruct or advise. Examples: you, your, yours this point of view is rarely used, and should be avoided in academic writing with the exception of direct quotes.

Third person places emphasis on the material being presented and takes focus off of the writer. It should be used in most academic writing, unless otherwise directed. In third person, pronouns such as he, she, they, her, him, or one are used. See Rules for Writers, pages 104-106 for a more detailed explanation.

Point of View (cont.)



In addition to the standard third person forms, feel free to use nouns that are specific to the topic you are writing about. Examples: a person or persons an individual or individuals a writer or writers a reader or readers

Subject-Verb Agreement
 

Verbs and their subjects must agree in person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) and number (singular or plural). Problems arise mostly with verbs in the present tense. For example, verbs that are singular (ending in s) must correspond with nouns that are singular (no ending).
Most nouns form plurals by adding -s or es as an ending. For example:  Singular noun The car in the lot looks shabby.  Plural noun The cars in the lot look shabby.

Subject-Verb Agreement (cont.)



Likewise, most verbs in present tense end in s or es.

Singular verb- A tomato ripens best in the sun. The librarian speaks quietly.

Plural verb- Tomatoes ripen best in the sun. Librarians usually speak quietly.

Don t be misled by subjects and verbs with modifiers between them.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement


Pronouns are words that are used to replace nouns. They have the same function as nouns, but are used to avoid unnecessary repetition. It is important that a pronoun agrees with the noun it is referring to, its antecedent. Pronouns include words like I, me, you, he, she, it, them, and they. A singular, masculine noun (the man) requires a singular, masculine pronoun (he), and so on.

Examples: Robert went to the store, and he bought some candy. Ellen made sure that she locked the door. Robert and Ellen said that they had a good time.

Contractions


Contractions may be acceptable in some circumstances but not in formal writing. Confusing contractions with possessive pronouns, such as it s and its, is common but not acceptable.

Example: its it s; theirs there s ; their they re; whose who s; your you re; his he s;


Verb-Tense Shifts
Verb tense is used to tell when the action you are writing about has happened. It is important not only to use the correct tense for each situation, but to remain consistent once you have begun in a certain tense. The three primary tenses in English are past, present and future. Present tense is used to discuss actions that are happening right now, or happen on a regular basis. For example, I walk my dog every day. This is an action that takes place daily. To describe something that has already occurred, use the past tense. The past tense is usually formed by adding ed to the end of a present tense verb. For example, if you do not walk your dog every day, but you did yesterday, say I walked my dog yesterday. To discuss future action, use the future tense. The future tense is always formed by adding the word will to the beginning of a present tense verb. If you plan to walk your dog tomorrow, say I will walk my dog tomorrow.


ARTICLES and Singular Count Nouns

Every time you use a singular count noun, (a common noun that names one countable item) that noun requires some kind of determiner. Articles are one kind of determiner. They are signals that a noun is to follow. The definite article the is used when the noun is a specific person, place, or thing. (Specific means anyone who reads your writing knows exactly which noun you are referring to.) The indefinite article a is used when the person, place or thing is nonspecific. If the noun begins with a vowel sound, use an in place of a.

ARTICLES and Singular Count Nouns (cont.)



If an adjective or phrase comes between the article and the noun, the choice of article does not change.
Indefinite article a: a chair a cold, metal chair an umbrella a useless umbrella

Definite article the: the computer the antiquated computer the candidate the well-qualified candidate

ARTICLES and Noncount Nouns Anything represented by a noun that cannot be counted is referred to as a noncount noun. For example water, rice, air, and love are noncount nouns. Nouns classified as noncount nouns vary from language to language. For a list of English noncount nouns, see Rules for Writers, page . Noncount nouns are always singular and use either the or no article.

ARTICLES and Noncount Nouns (cont.)



If the meaning of the noncount noun is specific, use the . If the meaning is nonspecific, do not use the.

ARTICLES and Noncount Nouns (cont.) Example: Kahil served rice to us. He flavored the rice with curry. Rice is a noncount noun. In the second sentence, rice has become specific, so the is used. For more examples of articles and their use, see Rules for Writers, pages 242-252.

Punctuation
Commas
A comma is a punctuation mark used to separate parts of sentences so that they flow without confusion.  A comma can be used:


After an introductory clause, or a clause that answers the questions who, what, when, where or how, concerning the main action.

Today, I went to class. While in class, I fell asleep.

Punctuation
Commas (cont.)


Commas are also used to separate items in a series.

Jeff used his paycheck to buy groceries, gasoline, and clothes. The cook made a spicy, tangy soup.


A comma is used to set apart nonessential information.

The mayor, who is running for reelection, held a fundraiser.

Punctuation
Commas (cont.)


Use a comma when forming a compound sentence by linking two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet).

The weather was nice, so they decided to walk. I am not agreeing with you, nor am I disagreeing. Remember: If you omit the coordination conjunction and try to join the two independent clauses with a comma only, you are committing a comma splice error.

Punctuation
Semicolons


Semicolons separate two independent

clauses when no coordinating conjunction is used.

The other uses for a semicolon are complex and used infrequently. You can find the rules on pages 291-295 of Rules for Writers. Do not use a semicolon to: introduce a list between an appositive and the word it refers to between a subordinate clause and the rest of the sentence

Punctuation
Colons


A colon calls attention to what follows. Use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to a list, an appositive, or a quotation.
There were three winners: Lynn, Ana, and Mia. Diego Rivera painted a controversial mural: the one for Rockefeller Center. Mr. Johnson repeated the words: I prefer not to.

For further help, please consult your professor, or come see us in the Writing Center, room ESEE-1221, inside the Math Lab.
You can find help and practice exercises over specific topics covered in this workshop in Rules for Writers on the following pages: Fragments: pages 148-155 Run-on sentences: pages 156-163 Commas: pages Articles: pages 242-252 Verb tenses: pages 203-221 and 224-241 Subject-verb agreement: pages 164-175 Pronoun- antecedent agreement: pages 175-181 Point of view: pages 104-106 Parallel structure: page 84-87

The writing center also has computerized grammar exercises available. Check out our other workshops on Writing Research Papers and MLA and APA Documentation!

References
For this workshop we used our own examples, as well as information from: Rules for Writers, 6th edition, by Diana Hacker The Blair Handbook, 2nd edition, by Toby Fulwiler and Alan R. Hayakawa Simon and Shuster Handbook for Writers, 4th edition, by Lynn Quitman Troyka