EC04 705(D) Satellite Communication Systems

MODULE I

BASIC SATELLITE SYSTEM

A communication satellite can be looked upon as a big microwave repeater. It contains several transponder which listens to some portion of the spectrum, amplifies the incoming signal, and broadcasts it in another frequency to avoid interference with incoming signals. Can relay signals over long distances.

Satellite Frequency Bands

C Band


 

4GHz-downlink and 6Ghz uplink the first to be designated More channels on uplink Capacity is low and terrestrial interference is a problem

Ku band
    

12 Ghz (11.7 to 12.2) downlink 14 Ghz (14.0 to 14.5 ) -uplink Higher capacity and less crowded Rain interference is main problem Antenna size is smaller compared to those in C band.

Basic Satellite Systems



Ground Stations (Earth Stations) -transmit RF signals to satellite Received signals signal conditionedretransmitted to other ES Communication b/w all ES within coverage area

Basic Satellite System



Space Segment
  

1 or more satellites and suitable orbits Telemetry Tracking and Command (TT&C) stations Redundant systems

Ground Segment


FSS (Fixed Satellite Service) - Fixed ES -Antennas vary from 11-30m diameter - interface b/w user and ES Design consideration

Ground segment contd



MSS
  

Several mobile terminals linked to fixed Telecommn n/w via the satellite 3 types-maritime, aeronautical and land based. Tx /Rx are signals are affected by environment around the mobile n/w. Live/rec programms tx through large gateway ES-via a high power satellite- to small terminals dispersed over the service area. Terminal antennas 50-100 cm diameter

DBS (Direct Broadband System)



SS-Design Consideration


Type of data


Voice ,data, video etc.

Type of service


FSS,MSS,DBS

Selection of Radio Frequency



Depends on type of application, propagation characteristics, state of technology, availability of BW , RF regulations etc

Selection of Optimal Modulation and coding Scheme.



Depends on type of message, radio link characteristics,complexity in ES

SS-Design Consideration contd

   

ES size and complexity Size and shape of the service area Technology related to satellite and GS. Satellite BW and power.

Applications and Advantages

Coverage over large geographical area, remote areas etc High bandwidth. Cheaper over long distances Mobile commn, TV and sound broadcasts Video distribution, internet High cost at introduction Failure in satellite circuitry during launch or after deployment affects a large area. Transmission delay caused by the long propagation path-in geosat. Susceptible to noise and interference Security can be an issue

    

Disadvantages
 

 

Geostationary satellites


   

A circular orbit at altitude 35,786 km above the equator geosynchronous orbit. Satellites rotate in unison with earth. Appear stationary. Minimum operational requirements of ES. Provides commn. to larger areas.( 1/3rd of earth) 3 GEO SAT at 120 degree can cover entire part of earth.

Geosat contd.

Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbits



A geostationary orbit is a special orbit for which any satellite in that orbit will appear to hover stationary over a point on the earth's surface. For any orbit to be geostationary, it must first be geosynchronous. A geosynchronous orbit is any orbit which has a period equal to the earth's rotational period. This requirement is not sufficient to ensure a fixed position relative to the earth. While all geostationary orbits must be geosynchronous, not all geosynchronous orbits are geostationary.

Figure below shows the difference between a geostationary orbit (GSO) and a geosynchronous orbit (GEO) with an inclination of 20 degrees. Both are circular orbits. While each satellite will complete its orbit in the same time it takes the earth to rotate once, the geosynchronous satellite will move north and south of the equator during its orbit while the geostationary satellite will not.

Geosat -Advantages


 

Stable signal strength due to constant ground satellite range. Simple tracking systems - simple design of ground terminals Minimum Doppler frequency shift on RF signals. Coverage available to most populated areas of the world. Time between launch and deployment is relatively small (few weeks).

GEO SAT-Disadvantages


 

Due to the high orbit, the spatial resolution of the data is not as great as for the polar orbiting satellites . Since they are always positioned above the equator they can't see the north or south poles and are of limited use for latitudes greater than 60-70 degrees north or south. Large propgn delay effects voice and time sensitive data protocols. Larger path loss, higher latency High transmitter power

SOLAR DAY


A solar day is the length of time between two successive passes of the sun across the same spot in the sky (e.g. crossing the meridian, overhead). Because the Earth moves in its orbit around the Sun, the Earth must rotate more than 360 degrees in one solar day . That time period is, on average, 24:00:00, hours, or one mean solar day.

SIDEREAL DAY


A sidereal day is the length of time between two successive passes of the fixed stars across the sky. Sidereal time is time kept with respect to the distant stars. A sidereal day lasts from when a distant star is on the meridian at a point on Earth until it is next on the meridian. A sidereal day lasts 23 hours and 56 minutes (of solar time), about 4 minutes less than a solar day.

Solar vs. Sidereal Day

(Source: M.Richaria, Satellite Communication Systems, Fig.2.7)

Solar vs. Sidereal Day

A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings of any particular longitude on the earth by any star other than the sun. A solar day is the time between consecutive crossings of any particular longitude of the earth by the sun-earth axis.
 

Solar day = EXACTLY 24 hrs Sidereal day = 23 h 56 min. 4.091 s

24

Comparision


Because the stars are so distant from us, the motion of the Earth in its orbit makes negligible difference in the direction to the stars. Hence, the Earth rotates 360 degrees in one sidereal day. The Earth must rotate an extra 0.986 degrees between solar crossings of the meridian. Therefore in 24 hours of solar time, the Earth rotates 360.986 degree.

ORBITAL PARAMETERS

Orbital elements are the parameters required to uniquely identify a specific orbit. Exactly six parameters are necessary to unambiguously define an arbitrary and unperturbed orbit. Ascending node is the point where the satellite crosses the equatorial plane moving in the direction from south to north. Descending node is the point where the satellite crosses the equatorial plane moving in the direction from north to south. The line joining these 2 nodes - Line of nodes.

ORBITAL PARAMETERS Contd

Orbital parameters contd

ORBITAL ELEMENTS


    

; Right Ascension of the Ascending Node i Inclination of the orbit [ Argument of Perigee tp Time of Perigee e Eccentricity of the elliptical orbit a Semi-major axis of the orbit ellipse

Orbital parameters contd



 

The semi-major axis, a describes the size of a conic orbit (conic/elliptical). The eccentricity, e, shows the ellipticity of the orbit. The inclination, i,-angle between the plane of then orbit and the equatorial plane measured at the ascending node in the northward direction. The right ascension of an ascending node, ,is the angle between the x axis and the ascending node. The argument of perigee, is the angle in the orbital plane b/w the line of nodes and the perigee of the orbit. Time tp is the time elapsed since the satellite passed the perigee.

ORBIT CHARACTERISTICS
Semi-Axis Lengths of the Orbit

p a ! 2 1 e
b ! a  e 1
2 1/ 2

where

h p ! Q

and h is the magnitude of the angular momentum

where

e is the eccentricity of the orbit

ORBIT ECCENTRICITY


If a = semi-major axis, b = semi-minor axis, and e = eccentricity of the orbit ellipse, then

ab e! ab

NOTE: For a circular orbit, a = b and e = 0

Low Earth Orbit Concepts

Descending node Ascending node Ground track Orbit Inclination angle Perigee

Equator

Orbit

South Pole

Apogee

KEPLERS THREE LAWS

LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION


The orbit of each planet follows an elliptical path in space, the sun being the focus. The satellite sweeps out equal arcs (area) in equal time (NOTE: for an ellipse, this means that the orbital velocity varies around the orbit) The square of the period of revolution equals a constant v the cube of semi-major axis of the ellipse

KEPLER 1: Elliptical Orbits

Law 1 The orbit is an ellipse

e = ellipses eccentricity O = center of the earth (one focus of the ellipse) C = center of the ellipse

KEPLER 1: Elliptical Orbits (cont.)

(describes a conic section, which is an ellipse if e < 1)

p r0 ! 1  e * cos(J 0 )
e = eccentricity e<1 ellipse e = 0 circle r0 = distance of a point in the orbit to the center of the earth p = geometrical constant (width of the conic section at the focus) p=a(1-e2) N0 = angle between r0 and the perigee axis

KEPLER 2: Equal Arc-Sweeps

Law 2 If t2 - t1 = t4 - t3

then A12 = A34 Velocity of satellite is SLOWEST at APOGEE; FASTEST at PERIGEE

KEPLER 3: Orbital Period

Orbital period and the Ellipse are related by

T2 = (4 T2 a3) / Q

Q = Keplers Constant =GME

That is the square of the period of revolution is equal to a constant v the cube of the semi-major axis.

EFFECT OF EARTH
  

Non uniform distribution of earths mass. Ellipsoid with slight bulge at equator Variation in gravitational pull

Main effects of perturbation on a satellite : 1.Perigee of the elliptical orbit rotates in the orbital plane.


The rate of change of argument of perigee (in degrees/day) is given by

2 R 5 cos (i )  1 deg/day [ ! 4.97 (1  e 2 ) 2 a where R ! mean equatorial radius(~ 6378 km) y 3.5

a ! semi - major axis i ! inclinatio n e ! eccentricity



When i=63.4, the [ tends to be zero. hence perigee is constant.

Orbits with i=63.4: Molniya Orbit



Apogee=~40,000km,Perigee=~1000km Apogee=~46,300km,Perigee=~25,250km Coverage for higher latitude locations Land mobile communication to higher latitudes

Tundra Orbit


Advantages
 

Main effects of perturbation on a satellite contd.. 2.The orbital plane rotates around the earths north-south axis.


The rate of precession of the ascending node in degrees/day is given by

r cos (i) deg/day ; ! 9.95 2 2 a (1  e ) where r ! satellite - geocentre distance in kms
y 3 .5

a ! semi - major axis i ! inclination e ! eccentricity

  

Rotation is opposite to satellite motion ~ 4.9/year for geostationary orbits The ascending node rotates around the earth in ~73 years.

Nodal Regression (nodal precession)



Nodal regression refers to the shift of the plane of an orbit under the gravitational force of Earth's (or any planet's) equatorial bulge. For low orbit satellites, it can be as much as 6 to 8 degrees per day westward (for example, at inclinations of 52 degrees and 28 degrees respectively). The regression rate depends on altitude (the higher, the lower the rate) and inclination (the higher, the lower the rate).

Main effects of perturbation on a satellite contd

3.The component of perturbating force along the orbital plane imparts a force vector on a satellite.
 

  

Mainly effects the geostationary satellites. The gravitational force on the satellite is directed towards the nearest equatorial bulge instead of earths centre-producing a component of force on the orbital plane. Since geosynchronous orbit is constant w.r.t earth, the perturbations adds up to cause a drift of satellite to one of the stable points. Stable points on minor axis. Max amplitude of drift acceleration=~+0.0018/day2. Drifts cancelled by firing regular thrusters.

Gravitational effects from other heavenly bodies



For LEO


Gravitational pull from earth> sun,moon Gravitaional pull from sun,moon is high. Gravity gradient -- higher force when SAT nears the heavenly body. i (inclination) of the orbit changes. The orbit normal moves towards the vernal equinox Sun+moon effects =i~ 0.75 to 0.94.

For GeoSAT
 

  

Gravitational effects from other heavenly bodies on GeoSAT contd

 

Variation in i due to moon =0.48 (min) to 0.67 (max) This cyclic variation is due to effect of sun on moons orbit. Max variation when orbit normal of moon and Satellite are maximum apart. Variation of i due to sun=~0.27/year almost constant.

Gravitational effects from other heavenly bodies on GeoSAT contd



3 main forces effects i of Geostationary satellites

 

G.F of Sun and moon acting along the same direction Force due to non spherical nature of earth (resulting in )acting opposite to the initial 2 forces.

 

When i=7.5 ,the forces cancel out. If not corrected, i of geoSAT oscillates between 0 to 15 with a period of 53 years.

Solar Radiation Pressure



 

 

Increases as surface area of satellite projected towards sun increases. Increases as size of solar arrays increases. The SRP on geostationary satellite results in a disturbing torque along the north-south axis of satellite. The SRP increases the orbital eccentricity. Corrected periodically

Sun Transit Outage



A sun outage, sun transit or sun fade is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary satellite signals caused by interference from solar radiation. The effect is due to the sun's radiation overwhelming the satellite signal. Generally, sun outages occur in February, March, September and October At these times, the apparent path of the sun across the sky takes it directly behind the line of sight between an earth station and a satellite. As the sun radiates strongly at the microwave frequencies used to communicate with satellites (C-band, Ka band and Ku band) the sun swamps the signal from the satellite. The effects of a sun outage can include partial degradation, that is, an increase in the error rate, or total destruction of the signal.

Other effects
  

Earths magnetic Field Meteorites Self generated torque and pressures due to RF radiation from the antenna.

Atmospheric Drag
   

Effects the LEO mostly. Friction due to collision with atoms and ions. Reduces the ellipticity of the orbit At lower orbital altitudes. Satellites face extensive heat due to friction and burns out Lower limit for LEO satellites=180kms

Satellite life


Satellite (operational) life depends on equipment life,fuel capacity of satellite etc Orbital life-LEO have lesser life than MEO and GEO.

Doppler effect
Freq of RF signals appears to be increasing as sat approaches the ground observer and appears to be decreasing as SAT moves away . Compensations for DS  Frequency budget for RX





Using Rx filter BW ,uncertainties /drifts in ES and SAT Local oscillators ,DS variations are analyzed. Maintains correct RF frequency by continuously monitoring parameters of each carrier in the n/w. The Doppler component is removed from The ES and spacecraft signals by comparing with values measured in the monitoring stations.

Monitoring stations


Doppler effect
The Doppler shift fd at frequency f1

vt=relative radial velocity b/w the observer and the transmitter C=velocity of light f1=transmission frequency

SATELLITE PATH Satellite Trajectory  Assumptions



The bodies of earth and satellite are symmetric spherically point masses. No other forces act on the system other than gravitational forces. The mass of earth is much greater than that of the satellite.

Related expressions

Related expressions.
Substituting eqn1 in 2 we get

The trajectory eqn.

Solving for r from the above eqn, the trajectory eqn is given by

The trajectory eqn.

( The fig.describes a conic section, which is an ellipse if e < 1)

r0 !

p 1  e * cos(U )

e = eccentricity e<1 ellipse e = 0 circle r0 = distance of a point in the orbit to the center of the earth p = geometrical constant (width of the conic section at the focus) p=a(1-e2) = angle between r0 and the perigee

The satellite period

From Keplers third law, we know that the period of a satellite depends only on the semi major axis, a

where =GME For circular orbits, The satellite period is given by..

Where R=radius of earth h= satellite altitude

Satellite velocity
Velocity of a satellite is given by

Where V=velocity r=distance from earth a-semi major axis For circular orbits a=r

Satellite position
O is centre of earth C is centre of ellipse At any time tp satellite is at position S. tp is measured with respect to perigee

A circle is drawn with C as centre and a (semi major axis) as the radius. Draw BM Perpendicular ,passing through S. E (angle BCM) = eccentric anomaly (angle SOM) = True Anomaly Mean Anomaly (M) = angle travelled by satellite from perigee,in the same time tp,moving at the average angular orbital velocity

Satellite position contd..

M is the mean anomaly,E is eccentric anomaly

E in radians and is true anomaly

When e=0, E=M=

Satellite position contd..

The distance between satellite and Geocentre is given by

Position of satellite relative to an earth Station is also given by satellite azimuth and elevation. Elevation ( )=angular distance along the vertical circle, from the horizon to the satellite location. Azimuth ( ) = angle between direction of true north and direction of satellite measured in clockwise direction.

Azimuth and elevation from a point T on earth

Azimuth and elevation -Figure

The Elevation


The elevation angle, also called the altitude, of an observed object is determined by first finding the compass bearing on the horizon relative to true north, and then measuring the angle between that point and the object, from the reference frame of the observer.

Azimuth


The azimuth angle is the compass bearing, relative to true (geographic) north, of a point on the horizon directly beneath an observed object. The horizon is defined as a huge, imaginary circle centered on the observer, equidistant from the zenith (point straight overhead) and the nadir (point exactly opposite the zenith).

Elevation of a satellite is also defined as the angle which the satellite makes with the tangent at a specific point on the earth .The elevation is given by

Selection of orbital slot



The service area should be served as high as possible. Satellite eclipses should occur max. at night to minimize usage of storage batteries. Maintain sufficient orbital distance from nearby satellites sharing same frequency to minimize interference. Considering the prevailing radio regulations, applications et.c

Non-Geostationary satellites


  

Constellation design based on: Inclination Altitude Eccentricity

1.Based on inclination:

Type 1: Orbital planes have common intersecting point * Coverage towards common intersection point Eg:Polar constellation Type 2: Orbital planes are distributed and hence satellites are uniformly distributed. *coverage uniformaly distributed

In both type the satellites have same time period.

2.Based on eccentricity
Hybrid constellations: combination of circular and elliptical orbits of different altitudes

3.Based on Altitude
  

LEO MEO GEO

Orbits of Different Satellites

LEO (Iridium) GEO

Earth

1000 km 10,000 km HEO 35,768 km

MEO

Not drawn to scale

LAUNCHING OF A GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE



Total energy of a satellite is given by

1 v2 Mm U ! m G 2 r m ! mass of satellite M ! mass of earth r ! dis tan ce from geocentre of earth to satellite v ! velocity of the satellite

LAUNCHING OF A GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE

Needs to attain a velocity of 3070m/s at the geostationary orbit height of 42,165km from earths centre (~36,000km from earths surface).  Max increment velocity v that a launch vehicle of Mass mo can impart is given by 1 ( v ! vg ln mf 1  mo vg ! effective exhaust velocity of the gas ( depends on type of fuel and the rocket nozzle design mf ! mass of the exp anded fuel


LAUNCHING OF A GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE

To increase v ,mf/mo must increase i.E mo must decrease Multiple stage rockets used Each stage is jettisoned after imparting a trust to attain the final v As mo decreases, the final stages need to give lower thrusts to attain v. v final =sum of velocity increments of all stages

HOHMANN TRANSFER


A transfer b/w 2 coplanar circular orbits via an elliptical transfer orbit requires minimum velocity increment and fuel.


The orbital inclination depends on the latitude of the launching station and is given by Cos(i)=sin( 1)cos( 1) 1-azimuth of launch 1- latitude of launch site

LAUNCHING OF A GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE



i=minimum, for easterly launch ( 1=90). Launch is closer to the equator to make max. advantage of earths rotational velocity and minimize fuel to bring down i to 0. Vertical launch minimizes atmospheric drag. The guidance system gradually tilts the vehicle to 90 east. Initially launched to a low earth parking orbit'. Ignition is cut off, the system drifts in the parking orbit.

LAUNCHING OF A GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE contd



Next, just before reaching the equator, second stage rocket is ignited. The satellite is injected to elliptical orbit with apogee of a geostationary orbit and its line of nodes is in the equatorial plane. In the elliptical orbit, the payload is separated from the launch vehicle. After several revolutions, accurate set of satellite orbital parameters are attained. The apogee kick motor (part of payload) is fired to convert elliptical to circular orbit.

LAUNCHING OF A GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE contd



At the apogee of elliptical orbit, the remaining incremental velocity is imparted normal to the orbital plane and the satellite is injected to geostationary orbit. Satellite drifts slowly w.r.t to earth-drift phase. Final corrections on i and other orbital parameters are done by final thrusters.

EXPENDABLE LAUNCHER -AQUIRING PARKING ORBIT

0-Vertical lift off 1-Rocket tilting eastward 2-First stage drop off 3-Second stage ignition 4-Insertion to parking orbit (180-250 kms) from earth 5-Second and third stage ignitions at equator crossings.

TRANSFER ORBIT AND FINAL SATELLITE POSITIONING

TRANSFER ORBIT AND FINAL SATELLITE POSITIONING 1. Velocity increment to attain transfer increment


Satellite spun for stabilization Orbital circularized i~=0

2 Apogee kick motor fired for velocity increment

 

3 4 5
 

Satellite is despun 3 axis stabilization acquired Minor orbital corrections

Minimize residual orbital errors Positioning of satellite

Final corrections on satellite parameters



  

Transition of stabilization from spin mode to 3 axis stabilizations. Solar array deployment. Sun-earth acquisition. In orbit tests checking the satellite performance before replacing the existing operational satellite. Drifts due to various perturbations are monitored periodically

LAUNCH FROM SPACE SHUTTLE



  

Expendable launch-lose of most of the h/w during launch. Space shuttle-reusable launch vehicle Retrieves and repairs satellite in low orbits The shuttle contains a reusable orbital-injects satellite to LO, re-enters the atmosphere as aircraft.

LAUNCH FROM SPACE SHUTTLE



 

The orbiter-launched vertically-using 2 recoverable solid rocket boosters. Liquid hydrogen/oxygen tank is the propellant for 3 main engines-expendable Initial inclination of i=28,in the parking orbit. The shuttle carries payloads of masses ~29500 kg (LEO) and 14500kg (polar orbits) Launch only upto LEO-additional propulsion to inject to geostationary orbits.

LAUNCH WINDOW


Limitations on launch time to certain specified intervals of time:



Position of Satellite is favorable w.r.t sun: to ensure adequate power supply, and thermal control throughout the mission Satellite should be visible to the control stations during all critical maneuvers.