Mutation Breeding

Mutation - Mutant
 Mutation
Changes in genes and chromosomes

 Mutated
Altered genes

 Mutant
New organism with a mutated gene or rearranged chromosomes

Mutation Breeding
 Advantages
Screen very high populations (cell based) Can apply selection to single cells

 Disadvantages
Many mutations are non-heritable non Requires dominant mutation (or double recessive mutation); most mutations are recessive
 Can avoid this constraint by not applying selection pressure in culture, but you loose the advantage of high through-put throughscreening have to grow out all regenerated plants, produce seed, and evaluate the M2  Alternative: perform on haploid cell lines

Mutation
 May involve any trait  All kind of transition are encountered, from drastic morphological changes deviations in physiology so minute as to be almost indiscernible  Harmful or even lethal

Type of mutation
Spontaneous (natural) mutation
Some have played an outstanding role in development of valuable crop cultivars and hybrids 2. Unfortunately, it can not form the basis of modern plant breeding due to its low frequency and difficulties in detection 1.

Induced mutation

Genetic structure changes

Gene (point mutation) Chromosome Genome

Gene (point) mutation

a change in specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules leading to the formation of a new type of protein or preventing that of the normally protein take place at the molecular or sub-microscopic level subSuch change may be accompanied by the emergence of a new trait inherited in accordance with Mendel s Laws

Chromosomal mutation
Mutation associated with splitting and subsequent changes in the structure of the chromosomes The end of the split chromosomes may fuse to form structure again, but the new chromosomes are not always exactly what the used to be The microscopic structures of chromosomes may be characterized by deletion or deficiency (loss of a chromosomal segment), duplication (doubling of a chromosomal segment), inversion (rearrangement of a group of genes in a chromosomal segment in a such a way that their order is reversed; rearrangement of genetic material in a chromosome results from loss of segment, its rotation by 180, and fusion of the separated ends) and 180 translocation (change in a position of a chromosome or more often exchange of segments between different chromosomes)

Genome mutation
Changes in sets of chromosomes
Remarks: 1. Breeders are more interested in gene mutation, because chromosomal rearrangement usually produce negative results, such as lower fertility of the offspring 2. Mutant are aften of great value for breeding as sources of new, previously unknown useful characters 3. Mutagenesis may be instrumental in obviating the technical difficulties arising in the crossing of such a small flowered crops such as milled

Story of induced mutation

1. 2. 3. X rays can significantly promote mutation in fungi (1925) X rays produced pronounced mutagenic effect on the fruit fly Drosophila (1927) Artificial mutants can serve as good source material in plant breeding; X rays induce mutations in Maize and barley (1928) Today there are three groups of breeders:
1) 2) 3) Mutation breeding is useless, we can accomplish the same thing with conventional methods Mutation breeding will produce a breakthrough given enough effort Mutation breeding is a tool, useful to meet specific objectives

Technique for inducing mutation

 Physical mutagens  Chemical mutagens Physical mutagens
1. Various sources of ionizing radiations are explored, most often X and gamma rays, UV radiation, fast and slow neutron, alpha ray, beta ray 2. Radioactive isotopes P-32 and S-35 are not convenient for PSuse due to the storage and application difficulties 3. The usual sources of gamma rays in laboratories are radioactive cobalt (Co-60) and Cesium (Cs-137) placed in (Co(Cscobalt bomb

Physical mutagens
4. The object can be irradiated in two ways:

 

5. 6.

With an aid of a powerful source of a short-duration gamma shortrays for short duration radiation. Need special units for irradiating living object A much weaker radiation but operating continuously (gamma field). the dosage must be varied depending not only on the plant species whose seeds/organs are irradiated, but also on many other factors plant must be irradiated heavily enough to ensure as many inherited changes as possible but without seriously affecting the germination, growth and fertility of plant directly emerging from the irradiated seeds or vegetative organs (critical (critical radiation dose: dosage which strong enough to assure many dose: mutation not yet so strong as to kill plants) plants)

Chemical mutagens


  

Mutagenic substances belonging to different classes of chemical compounds, such as ethylene imine, diethyl sulfate, dimethyl sulfate, N-nitrosoethyl urea, NNNnitrosomethyl urea, methal sulfonate, diepoxy butane, ethyleneoxide Most are highly toxic, usually result in point mutations Use in solution in the concentration ranging from tenth hundredths even thousandths of percent Many chemical mutagens are much more effective than physical one. If irradiation of crops produces 10 15% of viable inherited changes, chemical mutants do the same at a rate of 30 to 60% They often exert more specific and finely tuned action on the cell

Chemical mutagens
 Some substances (supermutagen) are capable of causing inherited changes in plants at a rate up 100%  Chemical mutagens aim at the most vulnerable spot of a living organism (DNA) to induce changes in nucleotides and alter the genetic information (Sometimes causes specific mutation)  It provides a powerful tool to induce desire changes in a trait

Use of mutations in sexually reproduced crops

 More valuable in self than cross pollinated. The probability of producing desirable mutations and genetic variability is theoretically higher  Seeds  Very young seedling

Use of mutations in asexually produced crops

  

It has been much easier and quicker to obtain variant plant types Specific location of the mutation event (segmental chimera) becomes important. The mutant must be in meristematic tissue that will produce faithfully through cutting or other vegetative means Bud Scion Cutting Tuber bulbs

    

Traditional Mutation Breeding Procedures

 Treat seed with mutagen (irradiation or chemical)  Target: 50% kill  Grow-out M1 plants (some call this M0) GrowEvaluation for dominant mutations possible, but most are recessive

 Grow-out M2 plants GrowEvaluate for recessive mutations Expect segregation

 Progeny test selected, putative mutants

Prove mutation is stable, heritable

Mutation breeding scheme for seed propagated crop

 Mutagenic application  Growing the plants (M1 generation)  Identification of induced mutation, seed harvest from mutated plants (M2)  Continue the identification and selection of induced mutation (M3)  First agronomic evaluation. Propagation of promising lines (M4)  Multilocation trials of stable mutant and recombinant lines (M5 M8)  Official testing and releasing of mutant (M9)

Mutation breeding scheme for vegetative propagated crop

 Mutagenic application  Cutting back the M1V1 shoot, bud grafting, or in vitro propagation via axillary buds  Isolation of induced somatic mutation, establishment of clones, cutting back of non-mutant shoots from chimeric nonplants (M1V2)  Further isolation of somatic mutations, vegetative propagation of mutant plant (in vivo or in vitro), preliminary evaluation of mutants (M1V3)  Evaluation of mutant clone performance, assesing segregation from mutant crosses and reselection of desired recombinants. Released of improved mutant (M2V4)

Requirements for Mutation Breeding

 Effective screening procedure
Most mutations are deleterious
 With fruit fly, the ratio is ~800:1 deleterious to beneficial

Most mutations are recessive

 Must screen M2 or later generations  Consider using heterozygous plants?
But some say you should use homozygous plants to be sure effect is mutation and not natural variation

 Haploid plants seem a reasonable alternative if possible

Very large populations are required to identify desired mutation:

 Can you afford to identify marginal traits with replicates & statistics? Estimate: ~10,000 plants for single gene mutant

 Clear Objective
Can t expect to just plant things out and see what happens; relates to having an effective screen This may be why so many early experiments failed

Mutation detection
Detection, isolation and testing mutants are extremely difficult Due to the sporadic nature of viable useful mutations, it is advisable to have larger plant population When mutagens are used in breeding, the biological nature of the trait (dominance or recession of the mutation) and crops must be taken into account

Trend in plant breeding based on mutation

Mutagens are used to induce mutations within a broad range and at a high frequency to obtain ample source of material for selection Mutant with a specific changes in certain characters are created in order to correct some defects in crop varieties. It is important that the other economic characters remain unaltered Mutagens can be used to solve special problems in plant breeding for instance by increasing the number of genetic recombinations and breaks of undesirable linkages, transferring chromosomal fragment from one plant species into chromosomes of another during hybridization, obtaining homozygous mutant through irradiation of haploids with subsequent doubling of chromosome number

Mutation useful for crop improvement

 Useful mutation
Any mutational change in a character which can be put to practical use Improve nutrition value of crop product Short stem High lodging resistance Disease resistance

1. 2. 3. 4.

Successes of Mutation Breeding Herbicide Resistance and Tolerance

 Resistance: able to break-down or metabolize the herbicide breakintroduce a new enzyme to metabolize the herbicide  Tolerance: able to grow in the presence of the herbicide either the target enzyme or altered form of enzyme
Most successful application of somaclonal breeding have been herbicide tolerance Glyphosate resistant tomato, tobacco, soybean (GOX enzyme) Glyphosate tolerant petunia, carrot, tobacco and tomato (elevated EPSP
(enolpyruvyl shikimate phosphate synthase)

 But not as effective as altered EPSP enzyme (bacterial sources)

Imazaquin (Sceptor) tolerant maize

 Theoretically possible for any enzyme-targeted herbicide it s enzymerelatively easy to change a single enzyme by changing a single gene

Mutagenesis - Overview
M3 plant mut-2/mut-2 Case 1:

x
Legend
M3 plant mut-1/mut-1 Case 2:

x
M3 plant mut-1/mut-1 Wild type +/+

D Backcrossing

Wild type Mutagen

A Mutagenesis

(chemical, radiation, T-DNA,) Mutant phenotype BC1 plant mut-1/+ Multiple backcrosses to remove background mutations

x
mut-1/mut-2 mut-1/+ mut-2/+ No allelism Allelism Single gene Two genes Wild type +/+

M1 plants Harvested In pools Pool 1 Pool 2 Pool 3, etc. Wild-type phenotype Strain A/A Pools of M2 seeds Strain A/B Strain B

C Allelism Tests
How many genes are involved?

BC2 plant mut-1/+

E Careful phenoty pic study

What exactly is wrong?

M2 seedlings Mutant mut-1

Recessive phenotypes appear here F Mapping Screen M2 pools (1, 2, etc.) +/+ for mutant phenotypes Where is the gene located? Wild type +/+ Strain B Propagate mutant from mut1/mut-1 or from its mut-1/+ heterozygous siblings mut-1/mut-1 Option 1: Backcross

Outcross

x
mut-1/mut-1 Strain A

mut-1/mut-1

B Screening

G Gene Cloning
mut-1/+ Strain A/Strain B How does the gene function?

x
mut-1 Strain A

M3 seedlings

Re-screening Establish segregation ratio - Recessive or dominant? - Monogenic or polygenic? - Penetrance? Initiate mutant characterization

Option 2: Selfing

Examine co-segregation of mutant phenotype versus strain-specific (visible or molecular) traits Mapping population Mapping population

A Mutagenesis

Wild type Mutagen (chemical, radiation, T-DNA,)

Legend

M1 plants Harvested In pools Mutant phenotype

Pool 1

Pool 2

Pool 3, etc.

Pools of M2 seeds

Wild-type phenotype

B Screening

Screen M2 pools (1, 2, etc.) for mutant phenotypes M2 seedlings Mutant mut-1 Propagate mutant from mut1/mut-1 or from its mut-1/+ heterozygous siblings

Legend

Mutant phenotype

M3 seedlings

Re-screening Establish segregation ratio - Recessive or dominant? - Monogenic or polygenic? - Penetrance? Initiate mutant characterization

Wild-type phenotype

C Allelism Tests

x
M3 plant mut-2/mut-2 Case 1: M3 plant mut-1/mut-1 Case 2:

How many genes are involved?

Legend

Mutant phenotype

mut-1/mut-2

mut-1/+ mut-2/+ No allelism Two genes

Allelism Single gene

Wild-type phenotype

D Backcrossing
M3 plant mut-1/mut-1 x/x

Wild type +/+ X/X

BC1 plant mut-1/+ x/X Multiple backcrosses to remove background mutations

Wild type +/+ X/X

BC2 plant mut-1/+ X/X

BC2 plant mut-1/mut-1

E Careful phenotypic study

F Mapping
Where is the gene located? +/+ Outcross mut-1/mut-1

Wild type +/+ Strain B mut-1/mut-1 Option 1: Backcross

mut-1/mut-1 Strain A

G Gene Cloning
How does the gene function?

x
Strain A/A Strain A/B Strain B mut-1 Strain A

mut-1/+ Strain A/Strain B

Option 2: Selfing

Mutant Heterozygote Wild type Mapping population Mapping population

Examine co-segregation of mutant phenotype versus strain-specific (visible or molecular) traits