CHAPTER 11.1 TO 11.

3
Machining

Cutters, Operations and Performance

11.Machining Cutters, Operations and Performance It is a system production system as a whole, including the machine tool, cutter attachments and tooling and its operation that are important when one evaluates performance. Cutting tools must run optimally, operators need to be trained and skilled, fixtures and attachments require design and construction and the selection of the best machine by the process planner is vital to economic success. 11.1 Cutting Tools This chapter expands on tools; that is, the point at which the material removal is ongoing, for turning, drilling, reaming , tapping, boring and other applications. Turning Tools A single point cutters are used, Figures 11.1A & B are examples of inserts that are clamped on a tool holder.

Figure 11.1 A is a triphase TiC/TiC-N/TiN composition which is a chemical vapor surface deposit on a cemented carbide substrate. It is used for interrupted cuts and heavy and moderate roughing of carbon and alloys steels, tool steels, stainless steels and alloy cast iron. Figure 11.1A is triangular insert, figure 11.1B, a diamond-shaped insert, is a cermat material or a CERamic and METallic binders. Its application:-Precision turning, boring of carbon, alloy and stainless steels, malleable and dutile cast irons. Single point tools are shown by three types in figure 11.2. Problems of cemented carbide tips that were brazed to the toolholder as shown in figure 11.2A. Figure 11.2B is a disposal clamp-on insert, when a cutting edge becomes worn or broken, the insert is unclamped and indexed to the next cutting edge. It saves time and avoids removing the cutter body & regrinding it.

Carbide tools do not have as much resistance to shock as high-speed steel. Brazed tip tools are used for low requirement turning , drilling, reaming and boring. The solid high speed steel insert is often ground by hand and placed in the toolholder as shown in figure 11.2C. Common insert are shown in figure 11.3. A great variety of designs, materials and applications are available for selection. Tool designations and angles for high-speed steel material tool blank are shown in figure 11.4 Effect of tool angles are shown in figure 11.5 Most operation the ECEA (end cutting edge angle) is limited to 50. In figure 11.5B, the angles can vary from 00 to almost 900. By increasing the side cutting edge angle,to decrease the thickness of the chip and increase its width.

Drills Drilling is a major and common hole-making process. A drill is rotary end-cutting tool having one or more cutting edges and a corresponding number of flutes that continue the length of the drill body. The main function of the flute is to lead away the formed chip from the cutting zone. Most drills have two edges and corresponding flutes. Twisted Drills: Consist of a point, flutes and a shank A twisted drill has two cutting edges and two flutes. The twisted drill shank can be: Tapered ( Morse taper of 16.25 mm/m) This taper fits into the spindle socket. Straight: They are held and centered in a drill chuck . Cheap and easier to produce than tapered shanks.

Reamers: Reaming is a cutting operation used to :1. Make an existing hole more accurate than can be obtained by drilling alone. 2. Improve the surface finish. A reamer is a multiple-cuting edge tool with staright or helical flutes. Reamers remove very little material from the work piece. Types of Reamers 1. Hand reamer: the reamers are rotated by hand (used for small diameter). 2. Machine reamers : (chuck reamers). They are mounted into a chuck and operated by the machine tool (lathe or drilling machines). The shank of machine reamers also can be tapered or striaght. Reamers are made of high speed steel(HSS) and solid carbides.

Milling Cutter Milling cutters resemble gears but with cutting teeth. Milling cutters are made of high-carbon steels, high speed steels, tunsten carbides, cermet and ceramics. High carbon steel (HCS) milling cutters have a limited use because they become dull very quickly. Types of milling cutters (according to methods of mounting on milling machines) I-Arbour cutters:- have ahole in the center for mounting on an arbour. Arbour cutters are classified to: 1. Plain Milling cutters: These cutters are used to mill flat surfaces. They have teeth only on periphery. Teeth can be straight or helical. 2. 2 side milling cutters : They are similar to plain cutters except that they have teeth on the side. They may have straight , helical or staggered teeth. 3. Metal-slitting saws: resemble side or plain cutters except that they are

Made very thin in order to perform cut-off operations and cut narrow slots. 4. Angular milling cutters: They can be single-angle cutters (have one conical surface) or doubleangle cutters (two conical surfaces). The angular cutters have the shape of grooves (E.g. V-grooves) 5. Form milling cutters : The teeth are given the required shape of the final part.(E.gs. Concave cutters, corner cutters and gear cutters) II Shank Cutters Cutters resemble drills and reamers because they have either a straight or tapered shank integral with the cutter body. These cutters are mounted into the spindle chuck or socket. Types of shank milling cutters: 1-End mills: They have a teeth on the periphery as well as on the end. They are divided into two groups:

a) Solid end mill: It is a small piece of metal with teeth and a shank as an integral part. b) Shell end mill: They are made to be mounted on a short arbour (They do not have shanks) 2-T-slot cutters: They are a special shape of end mills having either straight or tapered shanks and designed for T-slots in machines tables.

III. Face cutters: Their types are the same for arbour cutters. But they are bolted directly on the spindle.

Performance :
Performance can imply the time that is required or power, tool wear, or surface finish. Several questions are raised. How much time does the metal removal operation require? & how much metal can be removed?. If the performance is poor, other processes must be substituted to reduce the cost (RM).. Cutting speed We need to define the cutting speed in order to determine the time required for machining: Vc = DN 60000 Where, D- diameter of work, N-revolution per minute, rpm

Normally, cutting speeds and feeds are not calculated but typically are given in handbooks and references. These values are based on testing , experience and other factors such as machinability, wearness and roughness.( refer to table 8.2 and 11.1) Machining Time The time to machine is simply the distance that the tool travels divided by the feed velocity. For turning operations tm = L fN tm = Machining time, min L = Length of cut, mm D = Diameter of work, mm

Another feed rate is expressed in mm/min instead of mm, can be found as fm = f N Where fm = Feed rate, mm/min tm = L/ fm For milling operations Milling operations are different from turning operation because the feed depends on the number of teeth in the cutter as well as the cutter diameter. tm = L = L Dc f N 60000 Vc nt ft nt = No. of teeth on milling cutter ft = Feed per tooth, mm per tooth & Dc = Diameter of milling cutter The time of the operation as

Feed is known from table ( refer to table 8.2 & 11.1). In these tables note that there are given two values of feed and cutting speeds. For finishing machining we apply firstly, with smaller depth of cut and for rough cutting we apply with the increased depth of cut. In other words, for finishing processes we apply maximal cutting speeds Vc with minimal feed , f ( to decrease the surface roughness) and for rough cutting we use the minimal velocity and maximal feed ( to increase the productivity and save the tool) Rate of Metal Removal Rate of metal removal is the amount of material that is removed per unit of time. Turning operations Q = 1000 x t x fr x Vc, mm3/s or Q = 6000 x t xfr x Vc , mm3/min t = Depth of cut, fr = Feed, mm/revolution

For Drilling operation fm = Feed, mm/min Dd = Diameter of drill, mm Q = D2

d

fm 4

For Milling Q = w x t x fm fm = ft x nt x N w = Width of cut nt = no. of teeth on the cutter ft = Feed per tooth

Horsepower The horsepower can be found by using the rate of removal for turning, drilling and milling. 1 horsepower = 746 watt Horsepower at spindle : HPs =Q x P Where, Q rate of metal removal, mm3/min P Unit horsepower ( HP required to 1 mm3), horsepower per mm3/min. Any machine tool assumes some power in order to rotate its elements and overcome the friction. A machine tool is said to have a good efficiency if it spends little energy on its moving elements. Efficiency, = output input

Efficiency,

is less than 100% ( < 100% ).

Therefore, horsepower at motor HPm must be more than that horsepower required at spindle HPs. HPs HPm = Fc x Vc x 746 ( N x m/s = Watt)
=

HPs E

Fc Cutting force Normally, horsepower unit for different materials are given in tables and handbooks. (Refer to tables 8.1 & 11.2) Torque Torque at spindle, Ts = 63030 HPs N

Length of Cut The length of cut is the distance that the cutting tool travels at feed, f. L = Ls + La + Ld + Lot Ls - Safety length, mm La Approached length due to cutter geometry, mm Ld - Design length of work piece required to machine, mm Lot Over travel length due to cutter geometry, mm Safety length : 0.4mm < Ls < 13 mm The cutter approached the work with a rapid traverse motion. The velocity must be reduced before the tool reaches the work at a safety distance Ls so the tool will not hit the work piece.

Ls Work piece
Rapid motion

revolution

Approach length La and Overtravel length Lot These length depends on the tool geometry. For turning, La = Lot = 0 For milling operation, La & Lot depend on the milling cutter diameter and depth of cut La = Lot = Dc /2

End milling cutter (Vertical milling)

Arbour cutter 1 Dc/2 t La La = Lot = ( Dc/2)2 Lot ( Dc/2 t)2 = t ( Dc- t ) (horizontal cutter) 2

Note: In rough milling Lot = 0 but in finish milling Lot > 0 in order to avoid rough tool marks at the end of the work piece.

For drilling operations La = 0.3 Dc and Lot > La Drill

work piece

La
Work piece

Lot

Ld the length of cut calculated from engineering drawing.