EE007

Introduction to Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution

Segments of Power System

GENERATION

Engineering Control, Planning and Operation

TRANSMISSION

DISTRIBUTION

Generating Station Transmission System Step-up xmer Step-up xmer Receiving Station

Step-down xmer

Distribution System

Segments of Power System

Typical Electric Power Transmission and Distribution Scheme
Generating Station (4.16 kV) Primary Transmission 4.16/230 kV to other stations Primary Distribution (34.5 kV, 3.8 kV, 13.2 kV, 8.3 kV, 6.24 kV, 4.8 kV) Household Connections Secondary Distribution 230/115 kV Secondary Transmission 115/34.5 kV

480/240 V

6.24 kV/480 V

34.5/6.24 kV

Segments of Power System

Voltage Classes Voltage Classification Rated Voltage, kV Maximum Voltage, kV 34.5 36.5 46 48.5 69 72.5 115 121 138 145 161 169 230 242 345 362 400 (principally in Europe) 500 550 765 800 1100 1200

High Voltage (HV)

Extra-High Voltage (EHV)

Ultra-High Voltage (UHV)

Segments of Power System

Generation

Major Sources of Electrical Energy

The Sun The Wind Water Fuels Nuclear Energy Thermal and Geothermal Energy

Segments of Power System

Distribution

Distribution Systems connects all individual loads to the transmission lines through substation Parts of Distribution System
Distribution Substation Primary Distribution Feeder Distribution Transformer Secondary Distribution Feeder

Segments of Power System

Requirements of Good Distribution Systems

The voltage at the customer premises must be maintained at +5% of the declared voltage. The loss of power in the system itself should be a percentage of the power delivered. The distribution system is to be made as economical as possible. The maximum current passing through the conductor should be limited to such value so as not to overheat the conductor or insulation. The permissible resistance of the whole system shall be very high to avoid any leakage and probable danger to human life. There shall be no power failure, even if it exists, it should be minimum as possible.

Segments of Power System

Substation

Substation An assembly of equipment in an electric power system through which electric energy is passed for transmission, transformation, switching or distribution. Major Substation Equipment
Power Transformers Power Circuit Breakers Disconnect Switches Surge Arresters Shunt Reactors / Capacitors Protective Relays Measuring Instruments Current and Potential Transformers Storage Batteries

Segments of Power System

Substation

Selection of a particular breaker scheme depends on

Safety Reliability Economy Simplicity Other considerations Single Bus Scheme Double-Bus, Double-Breaker Scheme Double Bus, Single Breaker Scheme Main and Transfer Bus Scheme Breaker-and-a-Half Breaker Scheme Ring Bus Scheme

Most commonly used substation schemes

Substation
Breaker Schemes
Single Bus Scheme
CB

Double Bus, Double Breaker Scheme

BUS 2
CB CB DS

LINE
DS DS DS DS DS

CB

LINE
DS

LINE
DS

CB

CB

CB DS

LINE
DS DS DS DS DS

BUS BUS 1 LINE

Advantages low cost simple Disadvantages failure of any circuit results in shutdown of the entire substation difficult to do any maintenance bus cannot be extended without de-energizing the substation can be used only in places where loads can be interrupted or have other supply arrangements

Advantages each circuit has two dedicated breakers has flexibility in permitting feeder to be connected to either bus any breaker can be taken out of service for maintenance high reliability Disadvantages Most expensive Lose half of the circuit for breaker failure if circuits are not connected to both busses

Substation
Breaker Schemes
Main and Transfer Bus Scheme
CB DS CB DS DS DS DS DS

Double Bus, Single Breaker Scheme

MAIN BUS

LINE

LINE
CB DS DS

DS

CB DS DS DS DS DS CB

LINE
DS

TRANSFER BUS

LINE
DS

Advantages low initial and ultimate cost any breaker can be taken out for maintenance potential devices may be used in the main bus for relaying Disadvantages requires one extra breaker for the bus tie switching is somewhat complicated when maintaining a breaker failure of bus results in shutdown of the entire substation

BUS 1

BUS 2

Advantages permits some flexibility with two operating buses either main bus can be isolated for maintenance circuits can be transferred readily from one bus to the other by use of bus-tie breaker bus selector disconnect switches Disadvantages one extra breaker is required for the bus tie four switches are required per circuit

Substation
Breaker Schemes
Breaker-and-a-Half Breaker Scheme
BUS 1
CB CB CB

BUS 2

DS

DS

DS

DS

DS

DS

LINE

LINE

CB

CB

CB

DS

DS

DS

DS

DS

DS

LINE

LINE

Advantages most flexible in operation high reliability simple operation; all switching is done with breakers either main bus can be taken out for service at any time for maintenance bus failure does not remove any feeder from circuit and from service Disadvantages one and a half breaker per circuit relaying and automatic reclosing are somewhat involved since the middle breaker must be responsive to either of its associated circuits

Substation
Breaker Schemes
Ring Bus Scheme
LINE
CB DS DS CB

DS

DS

LINE

LINE

CB DS DS

CB

DS

DS

Advantages LINE low initial cost flexible operation for breaker maintenance any breaker can be removed for maintenance without interrupting load requires only one breaker per circuit does not use main bus each circuit is fed by two breakers all switching is done by breakers Disadvantages for a fault during breaker maintenance period, the ring can be separated into two sections automatic reclosing and protective relaying rather complex if a single set of relay is used, the circuit must be taken out of service to maintain the relays requires potential devices on all circuits since there is no definite potential reference point (these devices may be required in all the cases for synchronizing, live line or voltage indication)

Segments of Power System

Substation

The location of substation is dictated by the following factors

voltage level voltage regulation consideration sub-transmission costs substation costs the cost of primary feeders, mains and distribution transformers Other factors

However, to select an ideal location the following rules should be observed

locate substation as much as closer to load centers locate substation such that proper voltage regulation is obtainable without taking extensive measures

Segments of Power System

Substation

However, to select an ideal location the following rules should be observed

locate substation such that it provides access for incoming sub-transmission lines and outgoing primary feeders, also allows for future growth locate such that it allows future expansion of the substation itself locate substation such a manner that obey land use regulations, ordinances and neighbors locate substation in such a way that the number of customers affected is minimum by any service discontinuity other consideration, such as adaptability, emergency, etc

Transmission System
Transmission Line

Transmission Line
A mechanical structure designed to transmit a certain maximum amount of energy economically from one place to another, with a specified limit to the permissible voltage variation at the receiving end and with the least possible risk of interruption to continuous service. Also serves as linkage between power generation and power substations (serves as voltage transformation point or switching or both)

Design Considerations
Things to consider in designing a new transmission line

Economic Aspects
Choice of Voltage Frequency Size of Conductors Length of Span Route to be Taken

Mechanical Aspects
Strength, durability and stability of the conductors and the supporting structures Effect of natural forces such as wind Changes in temperature on the sag of the line Tension at the supports

Design Considerations
Things to consider in designing a new transmission line

Electrical Aspects
Insulation at high voltage Line losses Voltage regulation Methods of voltage control Effect of inductance and capacitance Corona Protection of the line against interruption due to lightning and similar causes

DC versus AC Transmission
Advantages and Disadvantages DC Transmission System Advantages

requires only two conductors as compared to three for AC transmission. There is no capacitance, phase displacement and surge problem in DC transmission. Due to absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a DC transmission is less than the AC for the same load and sending end voltage. There is no skin effect in a DC system. DC system requires less insulation for the same working voltage since the potential stress on the insulation is less than the AC system. A DC line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits. There is no stability problems and synchronizing difficulties in DC system. HVDC transmission is free from dielectric losses particularly in case of cables. Electric power cannot be generated at high voltage DC due to commutation problems. The DC voltage cannot be stepped-up for transformation of power at high voltages. The DC switches and circuit breakers have their own limitation.

Disadvantages

DC versus AC Transmission
Advantages and Disadvantages AC Transmission System

Advantages
Power can be generated at high voltages. Maintenance of AC substation is easy and cheaper. The AC voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down by transformers with ease and efficiency. This allows the transmission of power at high voltages and distribution at safe potentials.

Disadvantages
An AC line requires more copper than DC. The construction of an AC line is more complicated than a DC transmission line. Due to skin effect, the effective resistance of the line is increased. An AC line has capacitance, thus, there is continuous loss of power due to charging current even when the line is open.

Economical Transmission Voltage

Empirical Formula

kV ! 5.5 L 

kW 100

where: kW power to be transmitted L length of the transmission lines in miles

Systems of Power Transmission

DC System
DC, 2-wire DC, 3-wire

Single Phase AC System

Single Phase, 2-wire Single Phase, 3-wire

Three Phase AC System

Three Phase, 3-wire Three Phase, 4-wire

Systems of Power Transmission

Comparison of Various Systems of Transmission
Let: Cos U - power factor l length Vm maximum voltage V - resistivity of the material VC volume of conductor material WL line losses P power to be transmitted

Vm
_

2P2 lV A1 ! 2 Vm WL VC1 4P2 l2 V ! 2 Vm WL

I1
Let

2-wire DC System with one earth conductor

4 P2 l2 V K! 2 Vm WL

Systems of Power Transmission

Comparison of Various Systems of Transmission
Let: Cos U - power factor l length Vm maximum voltage V - resistivity of the material VC volume of conductor material WL line losses P power to be transmitted

Vm 2Vm Vm

P2 l V A2 ! 2 2 Vm WL 5 ! K 16

I2

VC 2

3-wire DC System

Systems of Power Transmission

Comparison of Various Systems of Transmission
Let: Cos U - power factor l length Vm maximum voltage V - resistivity of the material VC volume of conductor material WL line losses P power to be transmitted

b
_

Vm I3

4 P2 l V A3 ! 2 Vm WL Cos 2 U

VC 3 !

2 Cos 2 U

Single Phase 2-wire AC System with one earth conductor

Systems of Power Transmission

Comparison of Various Systems of Transmission
Let: Cos U - power factor l length Vm maximum voltage V - resistivity of the material VC volume of conductor material WL line losses P power to be transmitted

Vm 2Vm

P2 l V A4 ! 2 Vm WL Cos 2 U 5 ! K 2 8 Cos U

Vm

I4

VC 4

Single Phase, 3-wire AC System

Systems of Power Transmission

Comparison of Various Systems of Transmission
Let: Cos U - power factor l length Vm maximum voltage V - resistivity of the material VC volume of conductor material WL line losses P power to be transmitted

I5 b Vm I5

2 P2 l V A5 ! 2 3 Vm WL Cos 2 U 1 ! K 2 2 Cos U

VC 5
I5
Three Phase, 3-wire AC System

Systems of Power Transmission

Comparison of Various Systems of Transmission
Let: Cos U - power factor l length Vm maximum voltage V - resistivity of the material VC volume of conductor material WL line losses P power to be transmitted

I6 b Vm I6

2 P2 l V A6 ! 2 3 Vm WL Cos 2 U 7 ! K 2 12 Cos U

VC 6
I6
Three Phase, 4-wire AC System

Sample Problems
1. What is the percentage savings in feeder copper if the line voltage in a 2-wire DC system is doubled for the same power transmitted over the same distance and having the same power loss? A DC 2-wire system is to be converted into a DC 3-wire system by the addition of a 3rd conductor of the same cross section as the two existing conductors. Calculate the percentage additional load which can now be supplied if the voltage between wires and the percentage power loss in the line remains unchanged. A single phase AC system supplies a load of 200 kW and if this system is converted into a 3-phase, 3-wire AC system by running a 3rd similar conductor, calculate the 3-phase load that can now be supplied if the voltage between the conductors is the same. Assume the power factor and the transmission efficiency to be the same in two cases.

2.

3.

Sample Problems
4. A 3-phase, 4-wire system is used for lighting. Compare the amount of copper required with that needed for a single phase 2-wire system with the same lamp voltage. Assume the same losses and balanced load. The neutral is one-half the cross section of one of the respective outers.

End of Topic