Molecules of Life

Chapter 2 Part 1

2.1 Impacts/Issues Fear of Frying

All living things consist of the same kinds of molecules, but small differences in the ways they are put together have big effects on health Artificial trans fats found in manufactured and fast foods raise cholesterol and increase risk of atherosclerosis, heart attack, and diabetes

Video: Fear of frying

Fear of Frying
Trans fats are made by adding hydrogen atoms to liquid vegetable oils

trans fatty acid

Fig. 2-1, p. 20

2.2 Start With Atoms

All substances consist of atoms Atom

Fundamental building-block particle of matter

Lifes unique characteristics start with the properties of different atoms

Subatomic Particles and Their Charge

Atoms consist of electrons moving around a nucleus of protons and neutrons Electron (e-)
Negatively charged subatomic particle that occupies orbitals around the atomic nucleus

Charge
Electrical property of some subatomic particles Opposite charges attract; like charges repel

Subatomic Particles in the Nucleus

Nucleus
Core of an atom, occupied by protons and neutrons

Proton (p+)
Positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of all atoms

Neutron
Uncharged subatomic particle found in the atomic nucleus

An Atom

an atom

Fig. 2-2a, p. 21

Elements: Different Types of Atoms

Atoms differ in numbers of subatomic particles Element
A pure substance that consists only of atoms with the same number of protons

Atomic number
Number of protons in the atomic nucleus Determines the element

Elements in Living Things

The proportions of different elements differ between living and nonliving things Some atoms, such as carbon, are found in greater proportions in molecules made only by living things the molecules of life

Same Elements, Different Forms

Isotopes
Forms of an element that differ in the number of neutrons their atoms carry Changes the mass number, but not the charge

Mass number
Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an elements atoms

Radioactive Isotopes
Radioisotope
Isotope with an unstable nucleus, such as carbon 14 (14C)

Radioactive decay
Process by which atoms of a radioisotope spontaneously emit energy and subatomic particles when their nucleus disintegrates

Carbon 14: A Radioisotope

Most carbon atoms have 6 protons and 6 neutrons (12C) Carbon 14 (14C) is a radioisotope with six protons and eight neutrons When 14C decays, one neutron splits into a proton and an electron, and the atom becomes a different element nitrogen 14 (14N)

Radioactive Tracers
Researchers introduce radioisotope tracers into living organisms to study the way they move through a system Tracers
Molecules with a detectable substance attached, often a radioisotope Used in research and clinical testing

Why Electrons Matter

Electrons travel around the nucleus in different orbitals (shells) atoms with vacancies in their outer shells tend to interact with other atoms
Atoms get rid of vacancies by gaining or losing electrons, or sharing electrons with other atoms

Shell model
Model of electron distribution in an atom

Shell Models

Fig. 2-3 (top), p. 22

Fig. 2-3 (a-c), p. 22

first shell

1 1 proton 1 electron hydrogen (H)

2 helium (He)

6 second shell carbon (C)

8 oxygen (O)

10 neon (Ne)

11

17

18

third shell

sodium (Na)

chlorine (Cl)

argon (Ar)

Fig. 2-3 (a-c), p. 2

A) The first shell corresponds to the first energy level, and it can hold up to 2 electrons. Hydrogen has one proton, so it has one vacancy. A helium atom has 2 protons, and no vacancies. The number of protons in each shell model is shown. B) The second shell corresponds to the second energy level, and it can hold up to 8 electrons. Carbon has 6 protons, so its first shell is full. Its second shell has 4 electrons, and four vacancies. Oxygen has 8 protons and two vacancies. Neon has 10 protons and no vacancies. C) The third shell, which corresponds to the third energy level, can hold up to 8 electrons, for a total of 18. A sodium atom has 11 protons, so its first two shells are full; the third shell has one electron. Thus, sodium has seven vacancies. Chlorine has 17 protons and one vacancy. Argon has 18 protons and no vacancies.

first shell

1 1 proton 1 electron hydrogen (H)

2 helium (He)

6 second shell carbon (C)

8 oxygen (O)

10 neon (Ne)

11

17

18

third shell

sodium (Na)

chlorine (Cl)

argon (Ar)

Stepped Art

Fig. 2-3 (a-c), p. 2

Animation: Shell models of common elements

Ions
The negative charge of an electron balances the positive charge of a proton in the nucleus Changing the number of electrons may fill its outer shell, but changes the charge of the atom Ion
Atom that carries a charge because it has an unequal number of protons and electrons

Ion Formation

electron gain 17

Chlorine atom 17p+ 17e charge: 0 Chloride ion

17

17p+ 18e charge: 1 Sodium atom 11p+ 11e charge: 0 Sodium ion 11p+ 10e charge: +1

electron loss 11

11

Fig. 2-4, p. 23

Fig. 2-4a, p. 23

electron gain 17

Chlorine atom 17p+ 17e charge: 0

Chloride ion 17 17p+ 18e charge: 1

Fig. 2-4a, p. 23

Fig. 2-4b, p. 23

electron loss 11

Sodium atom 11p+ 11e charge: 0

Sodium ion 11 11p+ 10e charge: +1

Fig. 2-4b, p. 23

electron gain 17

Chlorine atom 17p+ 17e charge: 0 Chloride ion

17

17p+ 18e charge: 1 Sodium atom 11p+ 11e charge: 0 Sodium ion 11p+ 10e charge: +1

electron loss 11

11

Stepped Art Fig. 2-4, p. 23

Animation: How atoms bond

Animation: PET scan

Animation: The shell model of electron distribution

Animation: Subatomic particles

Animation: Atomic number, mass number

Animation: Electron arrangements in atoms

Animation: Isotopes of hydrogen

Video: ABC News: Nuclear Energy

Animation: Electron distribution

2.3 From Atoms to Molecules

Atoms can also fill their vacancies by sharing electrons with other atoms A chemical bond forms when the electrons of two atoms interact Chemical bond
An attractive force that arises between two atoms when their electrons interact

From Atoms to Molecules

Molecule
Group of two or more atoms joined by chemical bonds

Compound
Type of molecule that has atoms of more than one element

Referring to a Molecule

Same Materials, Different Results

Animation: Building blocks of life

Ionic Bonds and Covalent Bonds

Depending on the atoms, a chemical bond may be ionic or covalent Ionic bond
A strong mutual attraction formed between ions of opposite charge

Covalent bond
Two atoms sharing a pair of electrons

An Ionic Bond: Sodium Chloride

ionic bond

11

17

sodium ion (Na+)

chloride ion (Cl)

p. 24

Covalent Bonds
Molecular hydrogen (HH) and molecular oxygen (O=O)

molecular hydrogen (H2)

molecular oxygen (O2)

p. 24

Polarity

A covalent bond is nonpolar if electrons are shared equally, and polar if the sharing is unequal Polarity
Any separation of charge into distinct positive and negative regions

Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

Nonpolar
Having an even distribution of charge When atoms in a covalent bond share electrons equally, the bond is nonpolar

Polar
Having an uneven distribution of charge When the atoms share electrons unequally, the bond is polar

Importance of Polar Molecules

A water molecule (H-O-H) has two polar covalent bonds the oxygen is slightly negative and the hydrogens are slightly positive which allows water to form hydrogen bonds

p. 25

water (H2O)
p. 25

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bond
Attraction that forms between a covalently bonded hydrogen atom and another atom taking part in a separate covalent bond

hydrogen bond
p. 25

Importance of Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bonds form and break more easily than covalent or ionic bonds they do not form molecules Hydrogen bonds impart unique properties to substances such as water, and hold molecules such as DNA in their characteristic shapes

Animation: Ionic bonding

Animation: Examples of hydrogen bonds

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Animation: Sucrose synthesis

Animation: Covalent bonds

2.4 Water
All living organisms are mostly water, and all chemical reactions of life are carried out in water Hydrogen bonds between water molecules give water unique properties that make life possible
Capacity to dissolve many substances Cohesion (surface tension) Temperature stability

Polarity and the Unique Properties of Water

Fig. 2-7a, p. 26

slight negative charge

slight positive charge

slight positive charge

Fig. 2-7a, p. 26

Fig. 2-7b, p. 26

Fig. 2-7c, p. 26

Animation: Structure of water

Water and Solutions

Polar water molecules hydrogen-bond to other polar (hydrophilic) substances, and repel nonpolar (hydrophobic) substances Hydrophilic (water-loving)
A substance that dissolves easily in water

Hydrophobic (water-dreading)
A substance that resists dissolving in water

Water and Solutions

Water is an excellent solvent Solvent
Liquid that can dissolve other substances

Solute
A dissolved substance

Water and Solutions

Salts, sugars, and many polar molecules dissolve easily in water Salt
Compound that dissolves easily in water and releases ions other than H+ and OH Example: sodium chloride (NaCl)

Water and Solutions

Water molecules surround the atoms of an ionic solid and pull them apart, dissolving it

Animation: Spheres of hydration

Temperature Stability
Temperature stability is an important part of homeostasis
Water absorbs more heat than other liquids before temperature rises Hydrogen bonds hold ice together in a rigid pattern that makes ice float

Temperature
Measure of molecular motion

Cohesion
Cohesion helps sustain multicelled bodies and resists evaporation Cohesion
Tendency of water molecules to stick together

Evaporation
Transition of liquid to gas Absorbs heat energy (cooling effect)

2.5 Acids and Bases

Water molecules separate into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) pH
A measure of the number of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution The more hydrogen ions, the lower the pH

Pure water has neutral pH (pH=7)

Number of H+ ions = OH- ions

Acids and Bases

Acid
Substance that releases hydrogen ions in water pH less than 7

Base
Substance that releases hydroxide ions (accepts hydrogen ions) in water pH greater than 7

A pH Scale

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

battery acid gastric fluid acid rain lemon juice cola vinegar
orange juice tomatoes, wine bananas

12 hair remover bleach 13 oven cleaner 14 drain cleaner

Fig. 2-9, p. 27

more basic

blood, tears 8 egg white seawater baking soda 9 detergents Tums toothpaste 10 hand soap milk of 11 magnesia household ammonia

more acidic

beer bread black coffee urine, tea, typical rain corn butter milk pure water

Animation: The pH scale

Acid Rain
Sulfur dioxide and other airborne pollutants dissolve in water vapor to form acid rain

Buffer Systems
Most molecules of life work only within a narrow range of pH essential for homeostasis Buffers keep solutions in cells and tissues within a consistent range of pH Buffer
Set of chemicals that can keep the pH of a solution stable by alternately donating and accepting ions that contribute to pH

CO2 and the Bicarbonate Buffer System

CO2 forms carbonic acid in water
CO + H O 2 2

H CO (carbonic acid)
2 3

Bicarbonate buffer system

Excess H+ combines with bicarbonate H+ + HCO - (bicarbonate) 3

H CO
2

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3D Animation: Dissolution