Week 2

Metal Casting Processes
Source : Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,5rd Edition., S. Kalpakjian and S. Schmid, Materials,5 Schmid,
2008 , Additional references in the last slide
Metals processed by casting

Sand
casting 60% Permanent mold casting 11% Die casting 9% Investment casting 7% Centrifugal casting 7% Shell mold casting 6%
Types of Parts Made
Engine blocks Pipes Jewelry

Mold Features
The following is a gravity casting system. 2 principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design: Bernoullis theorem and the law of mass continuity.
Source : Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,5rd Edition., S. Kalpakjian and S. Schmid, Materials,5 Schmid, 2008 , Additional references in the last slide
Ferrous casting alloys

Cast irons represent the largest amount of all metals cast and can cast into complex shapes. Types of irons:

Gray cast iron Ductile iron (nodular iron) White cast iron Malleable iron Compacted-graphite iron Cast steels Cast stainless steels
Nonferrous casting alloys

Types of alloys:

Aluminum-based alloys Magnesium-based alloys Copper-based alloys Zinc-based alloys High-temperature alloys
Components of Casting

Path: Sprue -> Well -> Runner -> Mold cavity Riser: Compensate volume loss due to shrinkage Location of riser? Core: Make holes Core print Draft: Prevent collapse of sand
Expendable-Mold Permanent-Pattern Casting Processes
Sand Casting
Types of sand molds 3 types: green-sand, cold-box, and no-bake molds. Green molding sand is mixture of sand, clay, and water and is inexpensive. In skin-dried method, castings has high strength, better accuracy and surface finish. In no-bake mold process, a synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand and hardened in room temperature.
Sand Casting
Shell-mold casting

Can produce castings with close dimensional tolerances Good surface finish Low cost.
Ceramic Mold Manufacture
FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Function Sub function Reference Date Author
Shape Material
Conserve Material
Consolidation
Alting,Leo. Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide. 1994 April 2003 Horacio Elizondo
Description: Green Sand Casting
Capabilities
Expendable-Mold, Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes
Expendable-pattern casting (lost foam)

Evaporative Pattern Casting
FIGURE 5.20 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting process, also known as lost-foam or evaporative-pattern casting.
Investment Casting (lost-wax process)
Source:
Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax process). Castings by this method can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America.
Shape Material
Conserve Material
Consolidation
Description: Investment Casting
Capabilities
Investment Casting
Permanent-Mold Casting Processes
Continuous-Casting
(a) The continuous-casting process for steel. Note that the platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level. Source: American Foundrymen's Society. (b) (b) Continuous strip casting of nonferrous metal strip. Source: Courtesy of Hazelett Strip-Casting Corp.
Shape Material
Conserve Material
Consolidation
Description: Permanent Mold Casting
Capabilities
Pressure & Hot-Chamber Die Casting
FIGURE 5.24
Schematic illustration of the hotchamber die-casting process.
FIGURE 5.23 The pressure casting process, utilizing graphite molds for the production of steel railroad wheels. Source: Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated.
Shape Material
Conserve Material
Consolidation
Description: Hot Chamber Die Casting
Capabilities
Cold-Chamber Die Casting
FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. These machines are large compared to the size of the casting, because high forces are required to keep the two halves of the die closed under pressure.
Die Casting
Centrifugal Casting
FIGURE 5.26 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped hollow parts can be cast by this process.
Semicentrifugal Casting
FIGURE 5.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.
Properties of Die-Casting Alloys
TABLE 5.6 Properties and typical applications of common die-casting alloys.

Rotor Microstructure
FIGURE 5.22 Microstructure of a rotor that has been investment cast (top) and conventionally cast (bottom). Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, October 1990, p. 25. ASM International.
Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer

Bernoullis theorem Based on - principle of conservation of energy - frictional losses in a fluid system
p v2 h ! Constant Vg 2 g
h = elevation p = pressure at elevation v = velocity of the liquid = density of the fluid
Conservation of energy requires that,

2 p 2 v2 p1 v12 h1 ! h2 f Vg 2 g Vg 2 g
Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer - Fluid flow

Mass continuity States that for an incompressible liquid the rate of flow is constant.
Q ! A1v1 ! A2 v2

Q = volumetric rate of flow A = cross-sectional area of the liquid stream v = velocity of the liquid
Subscripts 1 and 2 pertain to two different locations in the system.


Sprue profile Relationship between height and cross-sectional area at any point in the sprue is given by
A1 ! A2

h2 h1
Velocity of the molten metal leaving the gate is
v ! c 2 gh

When liquid level reached height x, gate velocity is
v ! c 2g h x

Flow characteristics Reynolds Number Ratio of momentum (inertia) to viscosity Fluid flow in gating systems is turbulence, as opposed to laminar flow. (Which flow is preferred?) Reynolds number, Re, is used to characterize this aspect of fluid flow. v = velocity of the liquid
vD Re ! L

D = diameter of the channel = density n = viscosity of the liquid.
Higher the Re, greater the tendency for turbulent flow.

Critical Reynolds Number

Re ~ 2,000 Laminar to turbulent transition Eddies begin to form Re > 20,000 very turbulent
Example 1
How fast would a stream of honey 1 in. in diameter need to be turbulent?

Density ( ) = 1.43 g/cm3 (at 20oC) Viscosity (L) = 189 poise (at 20.6oC)
vDV Re ! L v v 0.254 v1430 Re ! 18.9

Re = 2,000 = 1,430 * V * 0.0254/18.9
turbulent flow transition Re ~ 2,000
V = 1,040 m/s
(This ignores shear thinning.)

Example 5.2
Design and analysis of a sprue for casting
The desired volume flow rate of the molten metal into a mold is 0.01 m3/min. The top of the sprue has a diameter of 20 mm and its length is 200 mm. What diameter should be specified at the bottom of the sprue in order to prevent aspiration? What is the resultant velocity and Reynolds number at the bottom of the sprue if the metal being cast is aluminium and has a viscosity of 0.004 N-s/m2 Solution Since d1 = 0.02 m
T 2 T 2 A1 ! d ! 0.002 ! 3.14 10 4 m 2 4 4
1Top, 2 bottom
The metal volume flow rate is Q= 0.01 m3/min = 1.66710-4 m3/s Therefore
Q 1.667 v 104 v1 ! ! ! 0.531 m/s 4 A1 3.14 v 10

Assuming no frictional losses, and recognizing that the pressure at the top and bottom of the sprue is atmospheric Thus,
2 p2 v2 p1 v12 h1 ! h2 f Vg 2 g Vg 2 g 2 patm 0.531 patm v2 ! 0 0.2 Vg 29.81 Vg 29.81 2
v2 ! 1.45 m/s
Q ! A2 v2
T 2 A2 ! d 4
1.667 v10 4 ! A2 v1.45

1.15 10
4
A2 ! 1.15 v 10 4 m 2
T 2 ! d 4
d ! 12 mm
In calculating the Reynolds number

V ! 2700kg / m3
v = velocity of the liquid D = diameter of the channel = density n = viscosity of the liquid. As stated above, this magnitude is typical for casting molds, representing a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow An Re value of up to 2000 represents laminar flow An Re Between 2000 and 20,000 it is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow and is generally regarded as harmless in gating systems for casting Re values in excess of 20,000 represent severe turbulence.
vDV .45 0.012 2700 1 Re ! ! ! 11,745 L 0.004
Physical Properties of Materials
TABLE 3.3 Physical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature.
Heat transfer

Heat flow depends on casting material and the mold and process parameters. Temperature distribution in the mold-liquid metal interface is shown below.
Solidification time (t) for an insulating mold ( mold << casting)
casting; k mold << k
V Casting (, Casting t! 4 Tmelting _ po int Tmold ,initil
v 1 casting k mold V mold cmold Acasting
Solidification time (t) for a conducting mold (Biot # =hl/k < 0.17)
vcasting V Casting (, Casting t ! h Tmelting _ po int Tmold ,initil Acasting
H = latent heat for the process = Hf + Ci T Hf = latent heat of solidification (fusion) V = volume A = area h = heat transfer coefficient C = specific heat = density
Cooling time (t) for a solid object for a small Biot number (Biot # =hl/k < 0.17)
t!
vcasting V casting Acasting h
casting
ln
old
casting ,initil
elting _ po int
casting , final
Chvorinovs rule for solidification time for an insulating mold
V t ! K A
t = cooling time K = a constant V = volume A = area
Chvorinovs rule for solidification time for a conducting mold t = K (V/A)

Filling time for a bottom-gated mold
2 Amold tf ! Agate 2 g
For no aspiration
total
htotal hmold
Abotto
.of . spreue
Atop .of . sprue
vtop .of .sprue vbotto

.of . sprue
h pouring ,ba sin htotal
Mold filling time estimate
Mold .volume t! Agate v gate

Material properties: Data for solid materials at room temperature
Material
Specific heat (C) (kJ/kg-oC)
Density ( ) (kg/m3)
Thermal conductivity (k) (W/m-oC)
Sand Aluminum Nickel Magnesium Copper Gray cast iron
1.16 0.90 0.44 1.07 0.39 0.441
1500 2700 8910 1700 8970 7125
0.60 202 92 156 385 42.7
Data for liquid materials

Material
Melting point Latent heat of Specific heat (C) Viscosity (oC) solidification (kJ/kg-oC) (L) (mPa-s) (fusion) (Hf) (kJ/kg)
660 1453 1083 1251 396 297 384 220 211 1.05 0.73 1.38 0.52 0.34 1.3 --1.04 2.1 5.25
Aluminum Nickel Copper Gray cast iron
Magnesium 650
Solidification time

Solidification time is a function of the volume of a casting and surface area (Chvorinovs rule).
Volume Solidification time ! Surface Area
n
C = constant n=2
Effects of mold geometry and elapsed time on skin thickness and its shape are show.
Example 5.3 Solidification times for various solid shapes

Three pieces being cast have the same volume but different shapes. One is a sphere, one a cube, and the other a cylinder with a height equal to its diameter. Which piece will solidify the fastest and which one the slowest? Use n = 2. Solution The volume is unity
1 Surface area 2
3 Sphere : A ! 4T 4T ube : A ! 6a 2 ! 6
2/3
Solidification time w
Respective surface areas are
! 4.84
Respective solidification times t are
ylinder : A ! 2Tr 2 2Trh ! 5.54
t sphere ! 0.043C t cube ! 0.028C tcylinder ! 0.033C

Shrinkage

Shrinkage in casting causes dimensional changes. Cracking is a result of: Contraction of the molten metal Contraction of the metal during phase change Contraction of the solidified metal
1. 2. 3.
For L->S, always think of Solidification Shrinkage!!
Melting Practice and Furnaces

Melting has a direct bearing on the quality of castings. Fluxes are inorganic compounds that refine the molten metal by removing dissolved gases and various impurities. The metal charge may be composed of commercially pure primary metals, which can include remelted or recycled scrap.
Casting Alloys
Source : Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,5rd Edition., S. Kalpakjian and S. Schmid, Materials,5 Schmid, P.P.P File Prepared by the author and publisher and other sources
Bibliography (References) . Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,5rd Edition., S. Kalpakjian and S. Schmid, Prentice Hill 2008 Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, 10th Edition, E. Paul DeGarmo, J. T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser,2007. Manufacturing Engineering & Technology , Serope Kalpakjian , 6th Edition, Prentice Hall,2009. TECNOLOGI CO DE MONTERREY Mechanical Manufacturing, Professor Arturo Molina , October 2004. E. Paul DeGarmo et al, Materials And Processes in Manufacturing, Wiley Publishing Company 2003. John E. Schey, Introduction To Manufacturing Processes McGraw-Hill Book Company,1988. Courtney, T. H., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, N. Y., McGraw-Hill, 1990. E., George E. and George F., The Testing of Engineering Materials, McGrraw-Hill Book Company. 1982. Hardness Tests, Metals Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1987. Harmer E., George E. and George F., The Testing of Engineering Materials, McGrraw-Hill Book Company. 1982. Halmshaw R. Non-Destructive Testing, Edward Arnold, 1991. Courtney, T. H., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, N. Y., McGraw-Hill, 1990. Jonathan S. Colton , Manufacturing Processes and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009. Pohlandt K., Material Testing for Metal forming Industry, N.Y Springer 1989. Lawrence E. Doyle, Manufacturing Process And Materials For Engineers, Prentice-Hall, Third Edition. T.T. EL-Midany & M.A. Mansour , Manufacturing Technology, King Abdulaziz University. S.F. Kvav et al., Machine Tool Operations, McGraw-Hill Book Company. Geoffrey Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools, McGraw-Hill Book Company. Cold and Hot Forging Fundamentals and Applications, Taylan Altan ,al, ASM,2007. Fundamentals of Metal Forming ,Robert H. Wagoner,Jean-Loup,Wiley,1997. Metal Forming ,Willam F. Hosford Robert M. ,second Edition, PTR, 1993.

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Metal Casting Processes

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Metals processed by casting

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Types of Parts Made

Engine blocks  Pipes  Jewelry

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Ferrous casting alloys

Nonferrous casting alloys

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Expendable-Mold Permanent-Pattern Casting Processes

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Ceramic Mold Manufacture

FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Function Sub function Reference Date Author

Description: Green Sand Casting

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Expendable-Mold, Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Expendable-pattern casting (lost foam)

Investment Casting (lost-wax process)

Function Sub function Reference Date Author

Description: Investment Casting

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Permanent-Mold Casting Processes

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Function Sub function Reference Date Author

Description: Permanent Mold Casting

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Pressure & Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Schematic illustration of the hotchamber die-casting process.

Function Sub function Reference Date Author

Description: Hot Chamber Die Casting

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Cold-Chamber Die Casting

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

Properties of Die-Casting Alloys

TABLE 5.6 Properties and typical applications of common die-casting alloys.

Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer

Conservation of energy requires that,

Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer - Fluid flow

Subscripts 1 and 2 pertain to two different locations in the system.

Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer - Fluid flow

Velocity of the molten metal leaving the gate is

When liquid level reached height x, gate velocity is

Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer - Fluid flow

D = diameter of the channel = density n = viscosity of the liquid.

Higher the Re, greater the tendency for turbulent flow.

Critical Reynolds Number

2008 , Additional references in the last slide

How fast would a stream of honey 1 in. in diameter need to be turbulent?

Engine blocks Pipes Jewelry

Q 1.667 v 104 v1 ! ! ! 0.531 m/s 4 A1 3.14 v 10

1.667 v10 4 ! A2 v1.45

V Casting (, Casting t! 4 Tmelting _ po int Tmold ,initil

vcasting V Casting (, Casting t ! h Tmelting _ po int Tmold ,initil Acasting

ylinder : A ! 2Tr 2 2Trh ! 5.54