BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUALISM AND

DIGLOSSIA IN SPAIN DIGLOSSIA IN SPAIN

Defining Individual Bilingualism Defining Individual Bilingualism
What is bilingualism? What is bilingualism?
Definitions: Definitions:
Weinreich Weinreich (1968) The practise of alternately using two languages will (1968) The practise of alternately using two languages will
be called bilingualism, and the person involved, bilingual. be called bilingualism, and the person involved, bilingual.
Diebold Diebold (1964) Incipient bilingualism (1964) Incipient bilingualism
Bloomfield Bloomfield (1933) In the cases where this perfect foreign (1933) In the cases where this perfect foreign- -language language
learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in
bilingualism, native like control of two languages. bilingualism, native like control of two languages.
Mackey Mackey (1970) It seems obvious that if we are to study the (1970) It seems obvious that if we are to study the
phenomenon of bilingualism we are forced to consider it as something phenomenon of bilingualism we are forced to consider it as something
entirely relativeWe shall therefore consider bilingualism as the entirely relativeWe shall therefore consider bilingualism as the
alternate use of two or more languages by the same individual. alternate use of two or more languages by the same individual.
Factors to take into account (Mackey): Factors to take into account (Mackey):
Degree, function, alternation, interference. Degree, function, alternation, interference.
Examples Examples
1. 1. A 2yo who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to A 2yo who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to
the other. the other.
2. 2. A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish
for the last 40 years. for the last 40 years.
3. 3. A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly
uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address
him in Italian only. him in Italian only.
4. 4. A young graduate who has been studying French for eleven years. A young graduate who has been studying French for eleven years.
5. 5. A personal interpreter of an important public figure. A personal interpreter of an important public figure.
6. 6. The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse
orally in German but cannot read or write it. orally in German but cannot read or write it.
7. 7. A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional
communication. communication.
8. 8. A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to
Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both. Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both.
Bilingualism as a CONTINUUM Bilingualism as a CONTINUUM
Describing Individual Bilingualism Describing Individual Bilingualism
AGE AGE
Early bilingualism, late bilingualism Early bilingualism, late bilingualism
CONTEXT CONTEXT
Natural/ascribed bilingualism, achieved/secondary bilingualism Natural/ascribed bilingualism, achieved/secondary bilingualism
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANING
Coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, compound Coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, compound
bilingualism bilingualism
ORDER AND CONSEQUENCE ORDER AND CONSEQUENCE
Incipient and ascendant bilingualism, recessive bilingualism Incipient and ascendant bilingualism, recessive bilingualism
COMPETENCE COMPETENCE
Maximalist/minimalist views, semilingualism Maximalist/minimalist views, semilingualism
USE/FUNCTION USE/FUNCTION
ATTITUDE ATTITUDE
Consciousness of Bilingualism Consciousness of Bilingualism
Societal Multilingualism Societal Multilingualism
Historical Factors: Historical Factors:
Military conquest, occupation, annexation Military conquest, occupation, annexation
Political marriages and succession arrangements Political marriages and succession arrangements
Colonisation Colonisation
Migrations and immigration Migrations and immigration
Federation Federation
Contemporary Factors Contemporary Factors
Neo Neo- -colonialism colonialism
Present Present- -day Immigration day Immigration
Language Promotion Language Promotion
Internationalisation Internationalisation
Societal Bilingualism Cont. Societal Bilingualism Cont.
Horizontal Bilingualism Horizontal Bilingualism
Territorial monolingualism Territorial monolingualism
Territorial bilingualism Territorial bilingualism
Instability Instability
Diglossia & Charles Ferguson Diglossia & Charles Ferguson
Diglossia Diglossia basic definition: basic definition:
Use of two languages/varieties of a language in one speech Use of two languages/varieties of a language in one speech
community but in different situations. community but in different situations.
Charles A. Ferguson (Word, 1959) created English word diglossia from
French diglossie (no English word before this to separate diglossia from
standard bilingualism)
FERGUSONS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DIGLOSSIA
FUNCTION:
Which language is used when
High language (H) e.g. Church sermon, political speech, news broadcast
Low language (L) e.g. conversations amongst family/friends, cartoon strip
Mixing up the uses speaker becomes object of ridicule.
PRESTIGE:
H seen as superior (more beautiful & logical) maybe as religious texts were written in it
Can lead to snobbery. Contemporary writers use words of old H to sound intellectual
Acquisition: Acquisition:
L taught at home L taught at home mother tongue mother tongue
H is taught in formal education H is taught in formal education superposed superposed
children can speak L better than H and write H better than children can speak L better than H and write H better than
L! L!
Before Before standardisation standardisation at least, H has dictionaries, at least, H has dictionaries,
vocabulary guides and a set grammar; L has no unified vocabulary guides and a set grammar; L has no unified
grammar and may have lots of varieties within it grammar and may have lots of varieties within it
Grammar & Grammar & vocabulary range vocabulary range of H, even after of H, even after
standardisation = more complex standardisation = more complex
Stability of Diglossia: Stability of Diglossia:
With illiteracy in society, diglossia can live for centuries / With illiteracy in society, diglossia can live for centuries /
forever forever
Widespread literacy can lead to unification of the 2 Widespread literacy can lead to unification of the 2
languages languages problem problem - - which one to choose as base? which one to choose as base?
DIGLOSSIA: DIGLOSSIA:
a relatively stable language situation in which, in a relatively stable language situation in which, in
addition to the primary dialects of the language addition to the primary dialects of the language
(which may include a standard or regional (which may include a standard or regional
standards), there is a very divergent, highly standards), there is a very divergent, highly
codified (often grammatically more complex) codified (often grammatically more complex)
superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and
respected body of written literature, either of an respected body of written literature, either of an
earlier period or in another speech community, earlier period or in another speech community,
which is learned largely by formal education and which is learned largely by formal education and
is used for most written and formal spoken is used for most written and formal spoken
purposes but is not used by any sector of the purposes but is not used by any sector of the
community for ordinary conversation community for ordinary conversation
Charles A. Ferguson Charles A. Ferguson
Fergusons ideas mainly still stand some outdated and have been expanded Fergusons ideas mainly still stand some outdated and have been expanded
Joshua Fishman Joshua Fishman
biglossia biglossia diglossia involving two completely separate languages diglossia involving two completely separate languages
digraphia digraphia H is for written use, L is for conversational use H is for written use, L is for conversational use
Pauwels Pauwels
interlingual diglossia interlingual diglossia - - 2 different languages 2 different languages
intralingua intralingual l diglossia diglossia - - both derived from same language both derived from same language
diglossia as a continuum diglossia as a continuum ranging from ranging from rigid diglossia rigid diglossia (clearly defined (clearly defined
codes/situations for use) to codes/situations for use) to fluid diglossia fluid diglossia (lots of overlapping of use) (lots of overlapping of use)
Fasold Fasold
Double Double- -nested diglossia nested diglossia two Hs, one L (lower H acts as H and L) two Hs, one L (lower H acts as H and L)
Polyglossia Polyglossia more than 2 languages more than 2 languages
(Code (Code- -switching switching 2 languages used in one situation/sentence) 2 languages used in one situation/sentence)
Other Theorists views / Types of Diglossia
Language Choice and Domains Language Choice and Domains
(Ferguson would argue this is societal bilingualism and not diglossia) (Ferguson would argue this is societal bilingualism and not diglossia)
LANGUAGE CHOICE: LANGUAGE CHOICE:
GROUP GROUP age, religion, sex age, religion, sex
SITUATION SITUATION formality formality- -informality, status equality informality, status equality- -inequality inequality
ROLE RELATIONS ROLE RELATIONS e.g. mother e.g. mother- -daughter (both as speaker & listener) daughter (both as speaker & listener)
TOPIC TOPIC can overrule the 3 factors above can overrule the 3 factors above
DOMAINS: DOMAINS:
e.g. family, playground and street, school, church, military e.g. family, playground and street, school, church, military (Schmidt (Schmidt- -Rohr) Rohr)
LANGUAGE SHIFT: LANGUAGE SHIFT:
can occur with socio can occur with socio- -political changes over time political changes over time
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BILINGUALISM & DIGLOSSIA RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BILINGUALISM & DIGLOSSIA
(Joshua Fishman) (Joshua Fishman)
BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA: BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA:
occurs when definite roles (of prestige) are established in a society occurs when definite roles (of prestige) are established in a society
everyone understands both (generally) everyone understands both (generally)
DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM: DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM:
in past or in less developed countries with great social divide in past or in less developed countries with great social divide
each group doesnt fully understand the other but have no need to each group doesnt fully understand the other but have no need to
BILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA: BILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA:
in societies with social unrest or change (e.g. immigrant influx in Western in societies with social unrest or change (e.g. immigrant influx in Western
society during industrialization era) society during industrialization era)
taught native language for work taught native language for work this used at home and their native this used at home and their native
language bought to work language bought to work
pidgin versions of both languages; inevitable language shift pidgin versions of both languages; inevitable language shift
NEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA: NEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA:
in small, isolated communities (but rare) with no social hierarchy or in small, isolated communities (but rare) with no social hierarchy or
immigration immigration
still words people dont recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old still words people dont recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old
people) people)
Galician History Galician History
12 12
th th
14 14
th th
century Golden Years, present century Golden Years, present
in all formal domains in all formal domains
16 16
th th
18 18
th th
century Dark Ages, entirely century Dark Ages, entirely
absent from formal domains absent from formal domains
19 19
th th
century Renaissance, won back some century Renaissance, won back some
areas of formal use areas of formal use
1983 Statute of Autonomy and Law of 1983 Statute of Autonomy and Law of
Linguistic Normalisation, officially present Linguistic Normalisation, officially present
alongside Spanish in all formal domains alongside Spanish in all formal domains
Galician Speakers Galician Speakers
Highly proficient Highly proficient
Galician the language of preference Galician the language of preference
Only in oral communication Only in oral communication
Written communication improving through Written communication improving through
education education
Old, lower classes, rural, less educated Old, lower classes, rural, less educated
Negative image Negative image
Less social success Less social success
Galician Usage Galician Usage
Code change Code change
Education Education
Professional/economic interest Professional/economic interest
Respect/courtesy Respect/courtesy
Social prestige Social prestige
Informal/unofficial social contexts Informal/unofficial social contexts
Classic diglossic situation Classic diglossic situation
Education, Church, Media Education, Church, Media
Education Education
Increased Galician language proficiency Increased Galician language proficiency
Degalicianise Galician speakers Degalicianise Galician speakers
Though important for status and survival Though important for status and survival
Church Church
Prestige and influence Prestige and influence
Mass predominantly taken in Spanish Mass predominantly taken in Spanish
Media Media
Reflect and condition sociolinguistic behaviour Reflect and condition sociolinguistic behaviour
State State- -owned TV/radio Spanish owned TV/radio Spanish
Local TV/radio Galician Local TV/radio Galician
Daily press Spanish Daily press Spanish
Advertising Spanish Advertising Spanish
Conclusion Conclusion
Classic example Diglossia Classic example Diglossia
Legal provisions proficiency and Legal provisions proficiency and
positive attitude positive attitude
Galician still seen as the low language (L) Galician still seen as the low language (L)
and Spanish the high language (H) and Spanish the high language (H)
Sociolinguistic inequality Sociolinguistic inequality
Outlook bleak Outlook bleak
Examples of bilingualism Examples of bilingualism
and diglossia in the Basque and diglossia in the Basque
Country Country
Euskalherria consists of three
principal areas:
the Basque Autonomous
Community (BAC), made up of
Gipuzkoa, Araba, Bizkaia
Navarra
the three French provinces of
Iparralde.
The Basque Autonomous Community Statute of Autonomy 1979
Castilian and Basque share co-official status
High rate of bilingualism, encouraged by institutions such as the
education system,
However, the majority language of the BAC is Castilian.
Basque
family and friends
predominantly oral
situations,
used informally and
daily
Castilian
high-status situations
that required a degree
of formality
e.g. academic spheres.
repression under the repression under the
regime regime
urbanisation urbanisation
immigration immigration
mean that the diglossic mean that the diglossic
situation has changed. situation has changed.
The situation in the BAC could be best
described as fragmentary bilingualism
with residual diglossia in the Basque
speaking districts of the BAC.
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v=1vk=!dvu 11.4 0.0 11.9
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Euskaldunes: capaces de entender y hablar euskera
Cuasi-euskaldunes: Con alguna competencia activa o simplemente pasiva
en euskera
Erdaldunes Sin ninguna competencia en euskera
Since 1991 there has been an increase of 5.3% in the number of
euskaldunes in the BAC
an increase of 25% in 1991 to 48% in 2001 of basque speakers in the age
range 16 24
In times of rapid urbanisation, it was seen rather as an
annoying obstacle to geographical and social mobility.
Suffered harsh repression under Francos regime
Immigration - Castilians entered the BAC in the
industrial revolution
Drop in number of Basque speakers, in favour of
Castilian
Basque became the language of the
rural poor, came to represent
backwardness in an era of progress
Ikastolas private schools to promote
the basque language in 1960s
1982 the Law of Normalisation of the
Use of the Basque Language
Bilingualism Decree of 1983
In the BAC, there are three different In the BAC, there are three different
models of bilingual education. models of bilingual education.
Model A Model A
the language of instruction is Castilian the language of instruction is Castilian
Basque is taught as a second Basque is taught as a second
language for 3 to 5 hours a week. language for 3 to 5 hours a week.
Model B Model B
Basque and Castilian are both used Basque and Castilian are both used
as languages of instruction as languages of instruction
Model D Model D
Basque is used as the language of Basque is used as the language of
instruction instruction
Castilian is taught as a subject. Castilian is taught as a subject.
198` 84 1999 91 199 9 ?99? 9`
M d! ^ ?.8 9. `1. `9.
M d! 19. ?4.9 ?. ??.
M d! l 1. ?4.4 49. 4.4

Evolution of the three linguistic models at pre-university level
Model A decline in number of students
Models B and D increase in popularity
Diglossia
In theory, Basque can be used in all
levels of society.
However, in practice, the majority of all
daily interactions take place in Castilian
Many dont use Basque, even if they
have the capability to.
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Keeping it in the family
the linguistic behaviour of Basque the linguistic behaviour of Basque
speakers has changed: they now use their speakers has changed: they now use their
own language in more diverse social own language in more diverse social
contexts than ever before. This, together contexts than ever before. This, together
with the language promotion efforts made with the language promotion efforts made
by many different institutions, has by many different institutions, has
contributed to an improvement in the contributed to an improvement in the
perceived social status of Basque. perceived social status of Basque.
Catalonia Catalonia
Population: 6,343,110 Population: 6,343,110
GDP : GDP :196,546 196,546 million (18.7% of total million (18.7% of total
Spanish GDP) Spanish GDP)
Officially Bilingual Officially Bilingual
Catalan is the official language of Catalonia, Catalan is the official language of Catalonia,
together with Castilian, the official language of the together with Castilian, the official language of the
Spanish State. All persons have the right to use Spanish State. All persons have the right to use
the two official languages and citizens of the two official languages and citizens of
Catalonia have the right and the duty to know Catalonia have the right and the duty to know
them. them.
How Many People Understand How Many People Understand
Catalan? Catalan?
Diglossia in Catalonia Diglossia in Catalonia
Historically Historically
Industrialisation Industrialisation
Franco Dictatorship Franco Dictatorship
Current situation : Current situation : the diglossic situation that was, the diglossic situation that was,
in the past, attributed to Catalonia, has ceased to exist in the past, attributed to Catalonia, has ceased to exist
Biglossia as opposed to Diglossia Biglossia as opposed to Diglossia
Catalan or not Catalan? Catalan or not Catalan? That is That is
the Question! the Question!
In In- -group/ intergroup interaction group/ intergroup interaction
It is proper to Speak Catalan only to those It is proper to Speak Catalan only to those
who are know to be Catalan who are know to be Catalan
Location Location
Apperence Apperence
Accent Accent
Fa cara de catal Fa cara de catal??
Bilingualism in catalonia Bilingualism in catalonia
Involuntary Bilingualism Involuntary Bilingualism
Prefer to use their own language but can Prefer to use their own language but can
speak Castilian speak Castilian
Natural Bilingualism Natural Bilingualism
Achieved / Secondary Bilingualism Achieved / Secondary Bilingualism
Passive bilingualism Passive bilingualism
Conclusions Conclusions
Catalonia is a bilingual region Catalonia is a bilingual region re re- -enforced enforced
by the state (language planning) by the state (language planning)
Probably more appropriate to talk about Probably more appropriate to talk about
biglossia or interlingual diglossia biglossia or interlingual diglossia
Natural, achieved/secondary, passive and Natural, achieved/secondary, passive and
involuntary bilingualism. involuntary bilingualism.
Catalan is a language of prestige and is Catalan is a language of prestige and is
promoted as such by the Catalan people. promoted as such by the Catalan people.
Standardised form of Catalan Standardised form of Catalan Some slight Some slight
regional variation but there is a standard form regional variation but there is a standard form
which also prevents diglossia. which also prevents diglossia.
Conclusion Conclusion
Bilingualism Bilingualism
Individual Individual
Societal Societal
There is no single definition but instead a There is no single definition but instead a
scale of different interpretations of what scale of different interpretations of what
constitutes bilingualism constitutes bilingualism
Diglossia Diglossia
Two languages co existing within a society Two languages co existing within a society
with completely separate functions with completely separate functions
Different statuses for the two languages Different statuses for the two languages
Spanish Examples Spanish Examples
Only truly a state of diglossia in Galicia Only truly a state of diglossia in Galicia
Less distinction between Castilian and the Less distinction between Castilian and the
minority language in Catalonia and the minority language in Catalonia and the
Basque Country Basque Country
Galicia Galicia the language with the least the language with the least
prestige. Perhaps why it is in the most prestige. Perhaps why it is in the most
danger? danger?
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