Oracle 9i SQL

Being Presented By

PM Karthick
Corporate Trainer Executive

Structure Query Language

Structured Query Language (SQL) is the set of statements with which all programs and users access data in an Oracle database.

How SQL Works

It processes sets of data as groups rather than

as individual units.
It provides automatic navigation to the data. It uses statements that are complex and

powerful individually ( PL/SQL).

Essentially, SQL lets you work with data at the

logical level.

Introduction to ORACLE

Objectives

 What is RDBMS ?  Advantages of SQL and PLSQL  RDBMS Vs ORDBMS  Uses and benefits of PL/SQL

Relational Database Definition

A relational database is a collection of two-dimensional tables. relations or

Database

Table Name: EMP

EMPNO 7839 7698 7782 7566 ENAME KING BLAKE CLARK JONES JOB PRESIDENT MANAGER MANAGER MANAGER DEPTNO 10 30 10 20

Table Name: DEPT

DEPTNO 10 20 30 40 DNAME ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES OPERATIONS LOC NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

Data Models

Model of system in clients mind

Entity model of clients model

Table model of entity model

Server

Tables on disk

Relating Multiple Tables EACH AND EVERY ROW IS IDENTIFIED BY A UNIQUE KEY CALLED PRIMARY KEY LOGICAL RELATED ROWS SHARED the PKEY as FOREIGN KEY.
EMP
EMPNO 7839 7698 7782 7566 ENAME KING BLAKE CLARK JONES JOB PRESIDENT MANAGER MANAGER MANAGER DEPTNO 10 30 10 20

DEPT
DEPTNO 10 20 30 40 DNAME ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES OPERATIONS LOC NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

Primary key

Foreign key

Primary key

Relational DB Properties

 A relational database

- SQL Statements to be used for manipulating the database. - No Physical Pointers to access and store relations between Tables. - Set of Operators for Functionality

RDBMS Using SQL

SQL statement is entered

SQL> SELECT loc 2 FROM dept;

Query is sent to Database

Database

Dept
Location ------------Dallas New York Santa Clara

Message is sent to the Client

RDBMS

Server

User tables

Data dictionary

ORACLE 9i An Overview

 Objects : User Defined Types very much in line to C++  Fully relational compatible  LOBS / Multimedia Files in Database !  Oracle Enterprise Manager

Classes.

Why use OOPs Methodology

SIMPLIFY To SOLVE. Objects and Interactions  They replicate real time environment.

Characteristics of OOPS

 INHERITANCE  POLYMORPHISM  ENCAPSULATION

Platform Independency
USER 3

USER 1

USER 2

USER 4

ORACLE SERVER Server simply satisfies the request

OS manages Data files

OS

Data files in the Disk

SQL Statements
SELECT

Data retrieval

INSERT UPDATE DELETE MERGE

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

CREATE ALTER DROP RENAME TRUNCATE

Data Definition Language (DDL)

SQL Statements

COMMIT ROLLBACK SAVEPOINT GRANT REVOKE

Transaction Control Language (TCL)

Data Control Language (DCL)

Objectives

SQL SELECT statements A basic SELECT statement SQL statements and SQL*Plus commands

Basic SELECT Statement

SELECT FROM

[DISTINCT] {*, column [alias],...} table;

Select Clause determines what columns The From Clause determines which table.

Writing SQL Statements

SQL is not Case Sensitive. Keywords cannot be split or abbreviated. SQL Statements can be split across lines. Clauses are placed in different lines, to promote readability.

Selecting All Columns

SQL> SELECT * 2 FROM departments; DEPTNO --------10 20 30 40 DNAME -------------ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES OPERATIONS LOC ------------NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

Selecting Specific Columns

SQL> SELECT deptno, loc 2 FROM departments; DEPTNO --------10 20 30 40 LOC ------------NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

Default Column Headings Default justification - Date and Character Data is Left Justified - Numeric Data is Right Justified  Display Headings in UPPER CASE.  Character / Date Columns headings will be Truncated.  Numerical Columns headings are not truncated. Column name can be replaced by the Alias name

Arithmetic Expressions
Basic Arithmetic operators

Operator + * /

Description Add Subtract Multiply Divide

Using Arithmetic Operators

SQL> SELECT ename, sal, sal+300 2 FROM employees; ENAME SAL SAL+300 ---------- --------- --------KING 5000 5300 BLAKE 2850 3150 CLARK 2450 2750 JONES 2975 3275 MARTIN 1250 1550 ALLEN 1600 1900 ... 14 rows selected.

Operator Precedence

 Parentheses can force precedence  Multiplication and Division followed by Addition and subtraction.

Operator Precedence

SQL> SELECT ename, sal, 12*sal+100 2 FROM employees; ENAME SAL 12*SAL+100 ---------- --------- ---------KING 5000 60100 BLAKE 2850 34300 CLARK 2450 29500 JONES 2975 35800 MARTIN 1250 15100 ALLEN 1600 19300 ... 14 rows selected.

Using Parentheses

SQL> SELECT ename, sal, 12*(sal+100) 2 FROM employees; ENAME SAL 12*(SAL+100) ---------- --------- ----------KING 5000 61200 BLAKE 2850 35400 CLARK 2450 30600 JONES 2975 36900 MARTIN 1250 16200 ... 14 rows selected.

Defining a Null Value NULL is UNASSIGNED Value.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM ename, job, comm emp;

ENAME JOB COMM ---------- --------- --------KING PRESIDENT BLAKE MANAGER ... TURNER SALESMAN 0 ... 14 rows selected.

Null Values in Arithmetic Expr

 NULL as an operand will result NULL

SQL> select ename NAME, 12*sal+comm 2 from emp 3 WHERE ename='KING';

NAME 12*SAL+COMM ---------- ----------KING

Using the NVL Function

SQL> SELECT ename, sal, comm, (sal*12)+NVL(comm,0) 2 FROM emp; ENAME SAL COMM (SAL*12)+NVL(COMM,0) ---------- --------- --------- -------------------KING 5000 60000 BLAKE 2850 34200 CLARK 2450 29400 JONES 2975 35700 MARTIN 1250 1400 16400 ALLEN 1600 300 19500 ... 14 rows selected.

Defining Column Alias

The Heading name is replaced for the current SELECT Statement. AS Keyword [ Optional ] between the column name and the actual alias name Double Quotation Marks.

Using Column Aliases

SQL> SELECT ename AS name, sal salary 2 FROM employees; NAME SALARY ------------- --------... SQL> SELECT ename "Name", 2 sal*12 "Annual Salary" 3 FROM employees; Name Annual Salary ------------- ------------...

Concatenation Operator (||)

Concatenates the Columns of any data type. A Resultant column will be a Single column.

Using Concatenation Operator

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM

ename||job AS "Employees" employees;

Employees ------------------KINGPRESIDENT BLAKEMANAGER CLARKMANAGER JONESMANAGER MARTINSALESMAN ALLENSALESMAN ... 14 rows selected.

Literal Character Strings

Date and character literal values must be enclosed within single quotation marks.

Using DISTINCT Clause Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT keyword
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT deptno 2 FROM employees;

DEPTNO --------10 20 30

Summary

SELECT FROM

[DISTINCT] {*,column[alias],...} table;

Use SQL*Plus as an environment to:

- Execute SQL statements - Edit SQL statements

Using 'Where' and 'Order By' Clauses

Objectives

Limit the rows required Arrange the rows in a particular order.

Using WHERE Clause Specify the Selection of rows retrieved by the WHERE Clause.
SELECT FROM [WHERE [DISTINCT] {*, column [alias], ...} table condition(s)];

The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause.

Using WHERE Clause

SQL> SELECT ename, job, deptno 2 FROM employees 3 WHERE job='CLERK';

ENAME ---------JAMES SMITH ADAMS MILLER

JOB DEPTNO --------- --------CLERK 30 CLERK 20 CLERK 20 CLERK 10

Character Strings and Dates

Character / Dates are Represented by the Single Quotation Marks. Default date format is 'DD-MON-YY'

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE

ename, job, deptno emp ename = 'JAMES';

Comparison Operators

Operator = > >= < <= <>

Meaning Equal to Greater than Greater than or equal to Less than Less than or equal to Not equal to

Using Comparison Operators

SQL> SELECT ename, sal, comm 2 FROM employees 3 WHERE sal<=comm;

ENAME SAL COMM ---------- --------- --------MARTIN 1250 1400

More Comparison Operators

Operator BETWEEN ...AND... IN(list) LIKE IS NULL

Meaning Between two values (inclusive)

Match any of a list of values Match a character pattern Is a null value

Using BETWEEN Operator

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE ename, sal employees sal BETWEEN 1000 AND 1500;

ENAME SAL ---------- --------MARTIN 1250 TURNER 1500 WARD 1250 ADAMS 1100 MILLER 1300

Lower limit

Higher limit

Used to compare between range of values. Values Specified are inclusive.

Using IN Operator
IN Operator to check with a List of Values.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE

empno, ename, sal, mgr emp mgr IN (7902, 7566, 7788);

EMPNO --------7902 7369 7788 7876

ENAME SAL MGR ---------- --------- --------FORD 3000 7566 SMITH 800 7902 SCOTT 3000 7566 ADAMS 1100 7788

Using LIKE Operator

Like Keyword Does Wildcard Searches in Valid String Values.. % ---------- zero or many characters _ ----------- one character
SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE ename emp ename LIKE 'S%';

Using LIKE Operator

ESCAPE identifier to search for "%" or "_".

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE ENAME ---------JAMES WARD ename emp ename LIKE _A%;

Using IS NULL Operator

To Check for Null Values , IS NULL is used.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE

ename, mgr emp mgr IS NULL;

ENAME MGR ---------- --------KING

Logical Operators

Operator AND OR

Meaning Returns TRUE if both component conditions are TRUE Returns TRUE if either component condition is TRUE Returns TRUE if the following condition is FALSE

NOT

Using AND Operator AND requires both conditions to be TRUE.

SQL> 2 3 4 SELECT FROM WHERE AND empno, ename, job, sal emp sal>=1100 job='CLERK'; JOB SAL --------- --------CLERK 1100 CLERK 1300

EMPNO --------7876 7934

ENAME ---------ADAMS MILLER

Using OR Operator OR requires either condition to be TRUE.

SQL> 2 3 4 SELECT FROM WHERE OR empno, ename, job, sal emp sal>=1100 job='CLERK';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL --------- ---------- --------- --------7839 7698 7782 7566 7654 KING BLAKE CLARK JONES MARTIN PRESIDENT MANAGER MANAGER MANAGER SALESMAN 5000 2850 2450 2975 1250

... 14 rows selected.

Using NOT Operator

SQL> SELECT ename, job 2 FROM emp 3 WHERE job NOT IN ('CLERK','MANAGER','ANALYST');

ENAME ---------KING MARTIN ALLEN TURNER WARD

JOB --------PRESIDENT SALESMAN SALESMAN SALESMAN SALESMAN

Rules of Precedence

Order Evaluated 1 2 3 4

Operator All comparison operators NOT AND OR

ORDER BY Clause

Sort rows specified by the order: ASC/DESC

SQL> SELECT ename, job, deptno, hiredate 2 FROM emp 3 ORDER BY hiredate; ENAME JOB DEPTNO HIREDATE ---------- --------- --------- --------SMITH CLERK 20 17-DEC-80 ALLEN SALESMAN 30 20-FEB-81 ... 14 rows selected.

Sorting in Descending Order

SQL> SELECT ename, job, deptno, hiredate 2 FROM emp 3 ORDER BY hiredate DESC; ENAME JOB DEPTNO HIREDATE ---------- --------- --------- --------ADAMS CLERK 20 12-JAN-83 SCOTT ANALYST 20 09-DEC-82 MILLER CLERK 10 23-JAN-82 JAMES CLERK 30 03-DEC-81 FORD ANALYST 20 03-DEC-81 KING PRESIDENT 10 17-NOV-81 MARTIN SALESMAN 30 28-SEP-81 ... 14 rows selected.

Sorting the rows by Alias

SQL> SELECT empno, ename, sal*12 annsal 2 FROM emp 3 ORDER BY annsal;

EMPNO ENAME ANNSAL --------- ---------- --------7369 SMITH 9600 7900 JAMES 11400 7876 ADAMS 13200 7654 MARTIN 15000 7521 WARD 15000 7934 MILLER 15600 7844 TURNER 18000 ... 14 rows selected.

Sorting by Multiple Columns The order of ORDER BY list is the order of sort.
SQL> SELECT ename, deptno, sal 2 FROM emp 3 ORDER BY deptno, sal DESC; ENAME DEPTNO SAL ---------- --------- --------KING 10 5000 CLARK 10 2450 MILLER 10 1300 FORD 20 3000 ... 14 rows selected.

Summary

SELECT FROM [WHERE [ORDER BY

[DISTINCT] {*, column [alias], ...} table condition(s)] {column, expr, alias} [ASC|DESC]];

SQL Functions

Objectives

Get an awareness of the Various SQL Functions available. Types of Functions in the SELECT Statement. Conversion functions

Types of SQL Functions

Functions

MultipleMultiple-row functions

SingleSingle-row functions

Single-Row Functions

Act on every row as a result of every row. Invoke Nested Levels.

function_name (column|expression, [arg1, arg2,...])

Single-Row Functions

Character SingleSingle-row functions

Number

Conversion

Date

Character Functions
Character functions

Character manipulation functions CONCAT SUBSTR LENGTH INSTR LPAD

Case conversion functions LOWER UPPER INITCAP

Case Conversion Functions

Convert case for character strings

Function UPPER('SQL Course')

Result SQL COURSE

LOWER('SQL Course') sql course INITCAP('SQLCourse') Sql Course

Case Conversion Functions

Display the employee number, name, and department number for employee Blake.

SQL> SELECT empno, ename, deptno 2 FROM emp 3 WHERE ename = 'blake'; no rows selected SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE empno, ename, deptno emp LOWER(ename) = 'blake';

EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO --------- ---------- --------7698 BLAKE 30

Character Functions

Function SUBSTR('String',1,3) LENGTH('String') INSTR('String', 'r') LPAD(sal,10,'*') Str 6 3

Result

CONCAT('Good', 'String') GoodString

******5000

Using Character Functions

SQL> SELECT ename, CONCAT (ename, job), LENGTH(ename), 2 INSTR(ename, 'A') 3 FROM emp 4 WHERE SUBSTR(job,1,5) = 'SALES';
ENAME ---------MARTIN ALLEN TURNER WARD CONCAT(ENAME,JOB) LENGTH(ENAME) INSTR(ENAME,'A') ------------------- ------------- ---------------MARTINSALESMAN 6 2 ALLENSALESMAN 5 1 TURNERSALESMAN 6 0 WARDSALESMAN 4 2

Number Functions
- ROUND:Rounds value to specified decimal
- ROUND(45.926, 2) 45.93 45.92

- TRUNC:

Truncates value to specified decimal

- TRUNC(45.926, 2)

- MOD:Returns remainder of division

- MOD(1600, 300) 100 - FLOOR (num): It returns the largest integer smaller than the given value FLOOR(123.456) 123

- CEIL (num): It returns the smallest integer greater than the given number. CEIL (123.456) 124

Working with Dates Stores date with Century. Default date format is DD-MON-YY. SYSDATE is a Function which returns the System date and time. DUAL is a dummy table used to view SYSDATE.

Arithmetic with Dates

Add/Subtract a Number to the Date. Add/Subtract hours to a date by dividing the number of hours by 24.

Working with Date Functions

FUNCTION MONTHS_BETWEEN ADD_MONTHS NEXT_DAY LAST_DAY ROUND TRUNC DESCRIPTION Number of months between two dates Add calendar months to date Next day of the date specified Last day of the month Round date Truncate date

Conversion Functions

Conversion Functions

Explicit data type conversion

Implicit data type conversion

Implicit Data type Conversion

For assignments, Oracle can automatically convert

From VARCHAR2 or CHAR VARCHAR2 or CHAR NUMBER DATE

To NUMBER DATE VARCHAR2 VARCHAR2

Explicit Data type Conversion

TO_NUMBER

TO_DATE

NUMBER

CHARACTER

DATE

TO_CHAR

TO_CHAR

TO_CHAR with Dates

TO_CHAR(date, 'fmt')

The format model:

Enclosed in Single Quote Marks. Include any Valid date format.

Date Format

YYYY YEAR MM MONTH DY DAY

Full year in numbers Year spelled out 2-digit value for month Full name of the month 3-letter abbreviation of the day of the week Full name of the day

DATE & TIME formats.

             AD, BC, A.D. A.D., AM, PM as indicators D - day of week (between Sun -1 and Sat -7 ) DAY spelled name of day in full(i.e. SUNDAY, MONDAY etc ) DD day of month (1 - 31) DDD day of year (between 1 and 366) DL long date format (eg: Saturday, December 30, 2006) DS short date format (eg: 12/30/2006) DY abbreviated name of day in 3 letters(i.e. Sun, Mon) HH / HH12 hour of the day (between 1 and 12) HH24 hour of the day (between 1 and 24) WW week of the year (between 1 and 52/53) MI minute (between 0 and 59) MM month (between 1 and 12)

DATE & TIME formats ..continued.

           

MONTH name of month (char(9)) MON abbreviated name of month (char(3)) Q quarter of year RM roman month (I .. XII ) SS Seconds (0-59) SSSSS seconds since midnight TS short time format TZD daylight saving information TZH time zone hour TZM Time zone minute W week of month (first week days 1 through 7 in month) YEAR -year will be spelled out.

Date Format Elements

 Time elements format the time portion of the date.

HH24:MI:SS AM

15:45:32 PM

 Add character strings by enclosing them in double quotation marks.  Number suffixes spell out numbers.

DD "of" MONTH

12 of OCTOBER

ddspth

fourteenth

TO_CHAR with Numbers

TO_CHAR(number, 'fmt')

To display a number value as a character.

9 0 $ L . ,

Represents a number Forces a zero to be displayed Places a floating dollar sign Uses the floating local currency symbol Prints a decimal point Prints a thousand indicator

TO_NUMBER & TO_DATE

A character string to a number format using the TO_NUMBER function

TO_NUMBER(char)

A character string to a date format using the TO_DATE function

TO_DATE(char[, 'fmt'])
SELECT TO_DATE('MAR 05 01','MON YY DD') FROM DUAL

RR Date Format Windowing Technique using the RR Date Format

Current Year 1995 1995 2001 2001 Specified Date 27-OCT-95 27-OCT-17 27-OCT-17 27-OCT-95 RR Format 1995 2017 2017 1995 YY Format 1995 1917 2017 2095

If the specified two-digit year is

0-49 If two digits of the current year are 0-49 The return date is in the current century. The return date is in the century after the current one. 50-99 The return date is in the century before the current one. The return date is in the current century.

50-99

Using Date Functions

 ROUND('25-JUL-95','MONTH') ROUND('25-JUL ROUND('25-JUL-95','YEAR') ROUND('25-JUL TRUNC('25-JUL-95','MONTH') TRUNC('25-JUL TRUNC('25-JUL-95','YEAR') TRUNC('25-JUL-

01-AUG-95 01-AUG01-JAN-96 01-JAN01-JUL-95 01-JUL01-JAN-95 01-JAN-

Using the NVL Function

NVL( exp1, exp2)
Purpose

NVL lets you replace a null with a string in the results of a query. - If expr1 is null, then NVL returns expr2. If expr1 is not null, then NVL returns expr1. - The arguments expr1 and expr2 can have any data type. If their data types are different, then Oracle converts expr2 to the data type of expr1 before comparing them. - The data type of the return value is always the same as the data type of expr1, unless expr1 is character data, in which case the return values data type is VARCHAR2 and is in the character set of expr1.

Using the DECODE Function

 CASE or IF-THEN-ELSE statement

DECODE(col/expression, search1, result1 [, search2, result2,...,] [, default])

Using the DECODE Function

SQL> SELECT job, sal, 2 DECODE(job, 'ANALYST', SAL*1.1, 3 'CLERK', SAL*1.15, 4 'MANAGER', SAL*1.20, 5 SAL) 6 REVISED_SALARY 7 FROM emp; JOB SAL REVISED_SALARY --------- --------- -------------PRESIDENT 5000 5000 MANAGER 2850 3420 MANAGER 2450 2940 ... 14 rows selected.

Nesting Functions

Single-row functions can be nested to any number of levels.  Function of Function rule F3(F2(F1(col,arg1),arg2),arg3)
Step 1 = Result 1 Step 2 = Result 2 Step 3 = Result 3

Summary

Perform calculations on data Modify individual data items Alter date formats for display Convert column data types

Using Joins

Objectives

Cartesian Join To access data from more than one Table using Equality and Non-Equality Condition Outer and Inner Join Join a table to itself

Data from Multiple Tables

EMP
EMPNO -----7839 7698 ... 7934 ENAME ----KING BLAKE ... DEPTNO ... -----... 10 ... 30 10

DEPT
DEPTNO -----10 20 30 40 DNAME ---------ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES OPERATIONS LOC -------NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

MILLER ...

EMPNO DEPTNO LOC ----- ------- -------7839 10 NEW YORK 7698 30 CHICAGO 7782 10 NEW YORK 7566 20 DALLAS 7654 30 CHICAGO 7499 30 CHICAGO ... 14 rows selected.

What Is a Join?
A JOIN Basically involves more than one Table to interact with.

SELECT FROM WHERE

table1.column, table2.column table1, table2 table1.column1 = table2.column2;

Where clause specifies the JOIN Condition. Ambiguous Column names are identified by the Table name.

Cartesian Product

A Cartesian product is formed when: A Join Condition is completely omitted All rows in the first table are joined to all rows in the second table

Cartesian Product
EMP (14 rows)
EMPNO -----7839 7698 ... 7934 ENAME ----KING BLAKE ... DEPTNO ... -----... 10 ... 30 10

DEPT (4 rows)
DEPTNO -----10 20 30 40 DNAME ---------ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES OPERATIONS LOC -------NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

MILLER ...

Cartesian product: 14*4=56 rows

ENAME DNAME --------------KING ACCOUNTING BLAKE ACCOUNTING ... KING RESEARCH BLAKE RESEARCH ... 56 rows selected.

Types of Joins
Inner Join Equi Join Non Equi Join Self Join Outer join Left Outer Join Right Outer Join Full Outer Join

Inner Joins

An inner join (sometimes called a "simple join") is a join of two or more tables that returns only those rows that satisfy the join condition

What Is an Equijoin?

An equijoin is a join with a join condition containing an equality operator. An equijoin combines rows that have equivalent values for the specified columns.

What Is an Equijoin?
EMP
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO ------ ------- ------7839 KING 10 7698 BLAKE 30 7782 CLARK 10 7566 JONES 20 7654 MARTIN 30 7499 ALLEN 30 7844 TURNER 30 7900 JAMES 30 7521 WARD 30 7902 FORD 20 7369 SMITH 20 ... 14 rows selected.

DEPT
DEPTNO ------10 30 10 20 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 ... 14 rows DNAME ---------ACCOUNTING SALES ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES SALES SALES SALES SALES RESEARCH RESEARCH selected. LOC -------NEW YORK CHICAGO NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO CHICAGO CHICAGO CHICAGO CHICAGO DALLAS DALLAS

Retrieving Rows: Equijoin

SQL> SELECT 2 3 FROM 4 WHERE

emp.empno, emp.ename, emp.deptno, dept.deptno, dept.loc emp, dept emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO DEPTNO LOC ----- ------ ------ ------ --------7839 KING 10 10 NEW YORK 7698 BLAKE 30 30 CHICAGO 7782 CLARK 10 10 NEW YORK 7566 JONES 20 20 DALLAS ... 14 rows selected.

Using Table Aliases

Simplify queries by using table aliases.
SQL> SELECT emp.empno, emp.ename, emp.deptno, 2 dept.deptno, dept.loc 3 FROM emp, dept 4 WHERE emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

SQL> SELECT e.empno, e.ename, e.deptno, 2 d.deptno, d.loc 3 FROM emp e, dept d 4 WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno;

Joining More Than Two Tables

CUSTOMER
NAME CUSTID ---------------JOCKSPORTS 100 TKB SPORT SHOP 101 VOLLYRITE 102 JUST TENNIS 103 K+T SPORTS 105 SHAPE UP 106 WOMENS SPORTS 107 ... ... 9 rows selected.

ORD
CUSTID ORDID ------- ------101 610 102 611 104 612 106 601 102 602 106 604 ITEM 106 605 ORDID ITEMID ... ------ ------21 rows selected. 610 3 611 1 612 1 601 1 602 1 ... 64 rows selected.

Non-Equijoins

An non-equijoin is a join with a join condition containing an non-equality operator. An non-equijoin combines rows that have non-equivalent values for the specified columns.

Non-Equijoins
EMP
EMPNO ENAME SAL ------ ------- -----7839 KING 5000 7698 BLAKE 2850 7782 CLARK 2450 7566 JONES 2975 7654 MARTIN 1250 7499 ALLEN 1600 7844 TURNER 1500 7900 JAMES 950 ... 14 rows selected.

SALGRADE
GRADE LOSAL HISAL ----- ----- -----1 700 1200 2 1201 1400 3 1401 2000 4 2001 3000 5 3001 9999

salary in the EMP table is between low salary and high salary in the SALGRADE table

Retrieving Rows:Non-Equijoin

SQL> 2 3 4

SELECT FROM WHERE BETWEEN

e.ename, e.sal, s.grade emp e, salgrade s e.sal s.losal AND s.hisal;

ENAME SAL GRADE ---------- --------- --------JAMES 950 1 SMITH 800 1 ADAMS 1100 1 ... 14 rows selected.

Self Joins
A self join is a join of a table to itself. This table appears twice in the FROM clause and is followed by table aliases that qualify column names in the join condition. To perform a self join, Oracle combines and returns rows of the table that satisfy the join condition.

Self Joins
EMP (WORKER)
EMPNO ----7839 7698 7782 7566 7654 7499 ENAME -----KING BLAKE CLARK JONES MARTIN ALLEN MGR ---7839 7839 7839 7698 7698

EMP (MANAGER)
EMPNO ENAME ----- -------7839 7839 7839 7698 7698 KING KING KING BLAKE BLAKE

"MGR in the WORKER table is equal to EMPNO in the MANAGER table"

Joining a Table to Itself

SQL> SELECT worker.ename||' works for '||manager.ename 2 FROM emp worker, emp manager 3 WHERE worker.mgr = manager.empno;

WORKER.ENAME||'WORKSFOR'||MANAG ------------------------------BLAKE works for KING CLARK works for KING JONES works for KING MARTIN works for BLAKE ... 13 rows selected.

Outer Joins
An outer join extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all rows that satisfy the join condition and also returns some or all of those rows from one table for which no rows from the other satisfy the join condition. To write a query that performs an outer join of tables A and B and returns all rows from A (a left outer join), use the LEFT [OUTER] JOIN syntax in the FROM clause, or apply the outer join operator (+) to all columns of B in the join condition in the WHERE clause. For all rows in A that have no matching rows in B, Oracle returns null for any select list expressions containing columns of B. n To write a query that performs an outer join of tables A and B and returns all rows from B (a right outer join), use the RIGHT [OUTER] JOIN syntax in the FROM clause, or apply the outer join operator (+) to all columns of A in the join condition in the WHERE clause. For all rows in B that have no matching rows in A, Oracle returns null for any select list expressions containing columns of A. n To write a query that performs an outer join and returns all rows from A and B, extended with nulls if they do not satisfy the join condition (a full outer join), use the FULL [OUTER] JOIN syntax in the FROM clause. Oracle Corporation recommends that you use the FROM clause OUTER JOIN syntax rather than the Oracle join operator. Outer join queries that use the Oracle join operator (+) are subject to the following rules and restrictions, which do not apply to the FROM clause join syntax: n You cannot specify the (+) operator in a query block that also contains FROM clause join syntax.Joins

Outer Joins
EMP
ENAME ----KING BLAKE CLARK JONES ... DEPTNO -----10 30 10 20

DEPT
DEPTNO -----10 30 10 20 ... 40 DNAME ---------ACCOUNTING SALES ACCOUNTING RESEARCH OPERATIONS

No employee in the OPERATIONS department

Outer Joins To see also the rows that do not usually meet the join condition. Outer join operator is the plus sign (+).
SELECT table.column, table.column FROM table1, table2 WHERE table1.column(+) = table2.column; SELECT table.column, table.column FROM table1, table2 WHERE table1.column = table2.column(+);

Using Outer Joins

SQL> 2 3 4 SELECT FROM WHERE ORDER BY e.ename, d.deptno, d.dname emp e, dept d e.deptno(+) = d.deptno e.deptno;

ENAME DEPTNO DNAME ---------- --------- ------------KING 10 ACCOUNTING CLARK 10 ACCOUNTING ... 40 OPERATIONS 15 rows selected.

Summary

SELECT FROM WHERE

table1.column, table2.column table1, table2 table1.column1 = table2.column2;

Types of Joins
 Equijoins  Non- Equijoins  Outer Joins  Self Joins

Using Group Functions

Objectives

 Group Functions  GROUP BY clause  HAVING Clause.

What Are Group Functions?

Operate on sets of rows to give one result per group.

EMP
DEPTNO SAL --------- --------10 2450 10 5000 10 1300 20 800 20 1100 20 3000 20 3000 20 2975 30 1600 30 2850 30 1250 30 950 30 1500 30 1250

maximum salary in the EMP table

MAX(SAL) --------5000

Common Group Functions

AVG COUNT MAX MIN STDDEV SUM VARIANCE

Using Group Functions

SELECT FROM [WHERE [ORDER BY

column, group_function(column) table condition] column];

Using the COUNT Function

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE COUNT(*) --------6

COUNT(*) emp deptno = 30;

Using the COUNT Function

COUNT(expr) returns the number of nonnull values in the given column.
SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE COUNT(COMM) ----------4 COUNT(comm) emp deptno = 30;

Group Functions & Null Values

Group functions ignore null values in the column.

SQL> SELECT AVG(comm) 2 FROM emp;

AVG(COMM) --------550

NVL with Group Functions

The NVL function forces group functions to include null values.

SQL> SELECT AVG(NVL(comm,0)) 2 FROM emp;

AVG(NVL(COMM,0)) ---------------157.14286

Creating Groups of Data

EMP
DEPTNO SAL --------- --------10 2450 10 5000 10 1300 20 800 20 1100 20 3000 20 3000 20 2975 30 1600 30 2850 30 1250 30 950 30 1500 30 1250

2916.6667

average DEPTNO AVG(SAL) salary ------- --------in EMP 2175 10 2916.6667 table 20 2175 for each department 30 1566.6667
1566.6667

Using GROUP BY Clause

SELECT FROM [WHERE [GROUP BY [ORDER BY

column, group_function(column) table condition] group_by_expression] column];

Modularize rows in a table into smaller groups by using the GROUP BY clause.

Using GROUP BY Clause

Columns that are not a part of the Group Functions should be included in the Group by clause.

SQL> SELECT deptno, AVG(sal) 2 FROM emp 3 GROUP BY deptno;

DEPTNO AVG(SAL) --------- --------10 2916.6667 20 2175 30 1566.6667

Grouping by Multiple Columns

EMP
DEPTNO JOB 10 MANAGER 10 PRESIDENT 10 CLERK 20 CLERK 20 CLERK 20 ANALYST 20 ANALYST 20 MANAGER 30 SALESMAN 30 MANAGER 30 SALESMAN 30 CLERK 30 SALESMAN 30 SALESMAN SAL 2450 5000 1300 800 1100 3000 3000 2975 1600 2850 1250 950 1500 1250 --------- --------- --------DEPTNO -------10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 JOB CLERK MANAGER PRESIDENT ANALYST CLERK MANAGER CLERK MANAGER SALESMAN SUM(SAL) 1300 2450 5000 6000 1900 2975 950 2850 5600

--------- ---------

sum salaries in the EMP table for each job, grouped by department

GROUP BY: Multiple Columns

SQL> SELECT deptno, job, sum(sal) 2 FROM emp 3 GROUP BY deptno, job;

DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL) --------- --------- --------10 CLERK 1300 10 MANAGER 2450 10 PRESIDENT 5000 20 ANALYST 6000 20 CLERK 1900 ... 9 rows selected.

Illegal Queries
Any column or expression in the SELECT list that is not an aggregate function must be in the GROUP BY clause.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM

deptno, COUNT(ename) emp;

SELECT deptno, COUNT(ename) * ERROR at line 1: ORA-00937: not a single-group group function

Illegal Queries


Group Functions cannot be placed in the where clause.

SELECT FROM WHERE GROUP BY deptno, AVG(sal) emp AVG(sal) > 2000 deptno;

SQL> 2 3 4

WHERE AVG(sal) > 2000 * ERROR at line 3: ORA-00934: group function is not allowed here

Segregating Group Results

EMP
DEPTNO 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 SAL 2450 5000 1300 800 1100 3000 3000 2975 1600 2850 1250 950 1500 1250 --------- ---------

5000 maximum salary per department greater than $2900

DEPTNO 10 20

MAX(SAL) 5000 3000

3000

--------- ---------

2850

Using the HAVING Clause

HAVING clause is to restrict groups Groups satisfying the HAVING condition are displayed.

SELECT FROM [WHERE [GROUP BY [HAVING [ORDER BY

column, group_function table condition] group_by_expression] group_condition] column];

Using HAVING Clause

SQL> 2 3 4

SELECT FROM GROUP BY HAVING

deptno, max(sal) emp deptno max(sal)>2900;

DEPTNO MAX(SAL) --------- --------10 5000 20 3000

Using HAVING Clause

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6

SELECT FROM WHERE GROUP BY HAVING ORDER BY

job, SUM(sal) PAYROLL emp job NOT LIKE 'SALES%' job SUM(sal)>5000 SUM(sal);

JOB PAYROLL --------- --------ANALYST 6000 MANAGER 8275

Nesting Group Functions

Display the maximum average salary.

SQL> SELECT max(avg(sal)) 2 FROM emp 3 GROUP BY deptno;

MAX(AVG(SAL)) ------------2916.6667

Summary
SELECT FROM [WHERE [GROUP BY [HAVING [ORDER BY column, group_function (column) table condition] group_by_expression] group_condition] column];

Order of evaluation of the clauses:

WHERE clause GROUP BY clause HAVING clause

Subqueries

Objectives

Describe the types of problems that subqueries can solve Define subqueries List the types of subqueries Write Single-row , Multiple-row ,Inline views and Multiple column subqueries

Subquery to Solve a Problem

Who has a salary greater than Joness?

Main Query

Which employees have a salary greater than Joness salary?

Subquery

What is Joness salary?

Subqueries
SELECT FROM WHERE select_list table expr operator (SELECT FROM

select_list table);

The subquery (inner query) executes once before the main query. The result of the subquery is used by the main query (outer query).

Using a Subquery
SQL> SELECT ename 2 FROM employee 2975 3 WHERE sal > 4 (SELECT sal 5 FROM employee 6 WHERE empno=7566); ENAME ---------KING FORD SCOTT

Guidelines for Subqueries Enclose subqueries in parentheses. Place subqueries on the right side of the comparison operator. Do not add an ORDER BY clause to a subquery. Use single-row operators with single-row subqueries. Use multiple-row operators with multiplerow subqueries.

Types of Subqueries
Single-row subquery
Main query Subquery returns

CLERK

 Multiple-row subquery
Main query Subquery returns

 Inline Views
From Clause of Main Query Subquery

CLERK MANAGER
returns

 Multiple-column subquery
Main query Subquery returns

SingleSingle-row MultipleMultiple-row MultipleMultiple-column

CLERK 7900 MANAGER 7698

Single-Row Subqueries Return only one row Use single-row comparison operators
Operator = > >= < <= <> Meaning Equal to Greater than Greater than or equal to Less than Less than or equal to Not equal to

Single-Row Subqueries

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SELECT FROM WHERE

AND

ename, job employee job = (SELECT FROM WHERE sal > (SELECT FROM WHERE

CLERK

job employee empno = 7369)

1100

sal employee empno = 7876);

ENAME JOB ---------- --------MILLER CLERK

Group Functions in Subquery

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE 4 5

ename, job, sal employee sal = (SELECT FROM

800

MIN(sal) employee);

ENAME JOB SAL ---------- --------- --------SMITH CLERK 800

HAVING with Subqueries

The Oracle Server executes subqueries first.

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6 7

SELECT FROM GROUP BY HAVING

deptno, MIN(sal) employee deptno MIN(sal) > (SELECT FROM WHERE

800

MIN(sal) employee deptno = 20);

What Is Wrong ?

SQL> SELECT empno, ename 2 FROM employee 3 WHERE sal = 4 (SELECT 5 FROM 6 GROUP BY

MIN(sal) employee deptno);

ERROR: ORA-01427: single-row subquery returns more than one row no rows selected

Will This Statement Work?

SQL> SELECT ename, job 2 FROM employee 3 WHERE job = 4 (SELECT job 5 FROM employee 6 WHERE ename='SMYTHE');

no rows selected

Multiple-Row Subqueries Return more than one row Use multiple-row comparison operators
Operator IN ANY Meaning Equal to any member in the list Compare value to each value returned by the subquery Compare value to every value returned by the subquery

ALL

ANY: Multiple-Row Subqueries

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6 7

SELECT FROM WHERE

AND

empno, ename, job 1300 1100 employee 800 sal < ANY 950 (SELECT sal FROM employee WHERE job = 'CLERK') job <> 'CLERK'; JOB --------SALESMAN SALESMAN

EMPNO --------7654 7521

ENAME ---------MARTIN WARD

ALL: Multiple-Row Subqueries

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE 4 5 6 EMPNO --------7839 7566 7902 7788

empno, ename, job 2175 employee 2916.6667 sal > ALL (SELECT FROM GROUP BY JOB --------PRESIDENT MANAGER ANALYST ANALYST

1566.6667

avg(sal) employee deptno);

ENAME ---------KING JONES FORD SCOTT

Multiple-Column Subqueries
Main query
MANAGER 10

Subquery
SALESMAN MANAGER CLERK 30 10 20

Main query compares

MANAGER 10

to

Values from a multiple-row and multiplemultiplemultiple-column subquery

SALESMAN 30 MANAGER 10 CLERK 20

Multiple-Column Subqueries

Display the name, dept. no, salary, and commission of any employee whose salary and commission matches both the commission and salary of any employee in department 30.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE 4 5 6

ename, deptno, sal, comm employee (sal, NVL(comm,-1)) IN (SELECT sal, NVL(comm,-1) FROM employee WHERE deptno = 30);

Subquery in FROM Clause

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6

SELECT FROM

WHERE AND

a.ename, a.sal, a.deptno, b.salavg employee a, (SELECT deptno, avg(sal) salavg FROM employee GROUP BY deptno) b a.deptno = b.deptno a.sal > b.salavg;

ENAME SAL DEPTNO SALAVG ---------- --------- --------- ---------KING 5000 10 2916.6667 JONES 2975 20 2175 SCOTT 3000 20 2175 ... 6 rows selected.

Subquery in WITH Clause

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

WITH summary AS (SELECT dname,sum(sal) as dept_total FROM emp a , dept b WHERE a.deptno = b.deptno GROUP BY dname); SELECT dname,dept_total FROM summary WHERE dept_total > (SELECT sum(dept_total)*1/3 FROM summary) ORDER BY dept_total desc; DEPT_TOTAL ---------10875

DNAME --------------RESEARCH

Non-Correlated

 SELECT dept.name FROM dept WHERE dept.id NOT IN ( SELECT dept_id FROM emp WHERE dept_id IS NOT NULL)

Correlated

SELECT dept.dname FROM dept WHERE EXISTS (SELECT deptno FROM emp WHERE emp.deptno = deptno) /

Correlated Subqueries
 Query to diplay name of highest salary taker.  SELECT EMPNO, ENAME FROM EMP A WHERE 1 > ( SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP B WHERE A.SAL < B.SAL)

Summary

Single row subqueries A multiple- ROW subquery returns more than one column. A multiple-column subquery can also be used in the FROM clause of a SELECT statement.

DML Statements

Objectives

Insert rows into a table Update rows in a table Delete rows from a table Controlling the Transactions

Data Manipulation Language

A DML statement is executed when you:

- Add new rows to a table - Modify existing rows in a table - Remove existing rows from a table

A transaction consists of a collection of DML statements that form a logical unit of work.

INSERT Statement

Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT statement.

INSERT INTO VALUES table [(column [, column...])] (value [, value...]);

Only one row is inserted at a time with this syntax.

Inserting New Rows

Insert a new row containing values for each column. List values in the default order of the columns in the table. Optionally list the columns in the INSERT clause. Enclose character and date values within SQL> INSERT INTO department single quotation marks. (deptno, dname, loc) 2 VALUES (50, 'DEVELOPMENT', 'DETROIT');
1 row created.

Insert Rows with Null Values Implicit method: Omit the column from the column list.
SQL> INSERT INTO 2 VALUES 1 row created. department (deptno, dname ) (60, 'MIS');

Explicit method: Specify the NULL keyword.

SQL> INSERT INTO 2 VALUES 1 row created. department (70, 'FINANCE', NULL);

Inserting Special Values

The SYSDATE and USER function records the current date and time.

SQL> INSERT INTO 2 3 4 VALUES 5 6 1 row created.

employee (empno, ename, job, mgr, hiredate, sal, comm, deptno) (7196, USER, 'SALESMAN', 7782, SYSDATE, 2000, NULL, 10);

Inserting Specific Date Values

Add a new employee.

SQL> INSERT INTO 2 VALUES 3 4 1 row created. employee (2296,'AROMANO','SALESMAN',7782, TO_DATE('FEB 3,97', 'MON DD, YY'), 1300, NULL, 10);

Verify your addition.

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO ----- ------- -------- ---- --------- ---- ---- -----2296 AROMANO SALESMAN 7782 03-FEB-97 1300 10

Substitution Variables (&)

Create an interactive script by using SQL*Plus substitution parameters.

SQL> INSERT INTO 2 VALUES 3

DEPARTMENT(deptno, dname, loc) (&department_id, '&department_name', '&location');

Enter value for department_id: 80 Enter value for department_name: EDUCATION Enter value for location: ATLANTA 1 row created.

Multiple table insert

 Insert all the employees details who are managers into bonus and tax for further manipulation  INSERT ALL

- INTO BONUS (EMPNO,ANNUAL_SAL) - VALUES(EMPNO,SAL*12) - INTO TAX(EMPNO, GROSS_INCOME) - VALUES(EMPNO,(SAL+NVL(COMM,0))*12) - SELECT EMPNO,SAL,COMM FROM EMP - WHERE JOB=MANAGER

MULTIPLE TABLE CONDITIONAL INSERT

       

INSERT ALL WHEN JOB=CLERK then INTO BONUS(EMPNO,ANN_SAL) VALUES(EMPNO, SAL*12) WHEN JOB=SALESMAN then INTO BONUS(EMPNO,ANN_SAL) VALUES(EMPNO, (SAL+NVL(COMM,0))*12) SELECT EMPNO,job,SAL,COMM FROM EMP

Copying from Another Table Write your INSERT statement with a subquery.
SQL> INSERT INTO managers(id, name, salary, hiredate) 2 SELECT empno, ename, sal, hiredate 3 FROM employee 4 WHERE job = 'MANAGER'; 3 rows created.

Do not use the VALUES clause. Match the number of columns in the INSERT clause to those in the subquery.

UPDATE Statement

Modify existing rows with the UPDATE statement.

UPDATE SET  [WHERE table column = value [, column = value] condition];

Update more than one row at a time, if required.

Updating Rows in a Table

All rows in the table are modified if you omit the WHERE clause.

SQL> UPDATE employee 2 SET deptno = 20; 14 rows updated.

Updating Rows:

Integrity Constraint Error

SQL> UPDATE 2 SET 3 WHERE employee deptno = 55 deptno = 10;

UPDATE emp * ERROR at line 1: ORA-02291: integrity constraint (USR.EMP_DEPTNO_FK) violated - parent key not found

DELETE Statement

You can remove existing rows from a table by using the DELETE statement.

DELETE [FROM] [WHERE

table condition];

Deleting Rows from a Table Specific row or rows are deleted when you specify the WHERE clause.
SQL> DELETE FROM 2 WHERE 1 row deleted. department dname = 'DEVELOPMENT';

All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the WHERE clause.
SQL> DELETE FROM 4 rows deleted. department;

Deleting Rows:

Integrity Constraint Error

SQL> DELETE FROM 2 WHERE department deptno = 10;

DELETE FROM dept * ERROR at line 1: ORA-02292: integrity constraint (USR.EMP_DEPTNO_FK) violated - child record found

Summary

Statement INSERT UPDATE DELETE COMMIT SAVEPOINT ROLLBACK

Description Adds a new row to the table Modifies existing rows in the table Removes existing rows from the table Makes all pending changes permanent Allows a rollback to the savepoint marker Discards all pending data changes

DDL Statements

Objectives

Describe the main database objects Create tables Describe the data types that can be used when specifying column definition Alter table definitions Drop, rename, and truncate tables

Database Objects

Object Table

Description Basic unit of storage; composed of rows and columns

View

Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables

Sequence Index Synonym

Generates primary key values Improves the performance of some queries Gives alternative names to objects

Naming Conventions

Must begin with a letter Can be 130 characters long Must contain only AZ, az, 09, _, $, and # Must not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same user Must not be an Oracle Server reserved word

CREATE TABLE Statement

You must have : - CREATE TABLE privilege - A storage area

CREATE TABLE [schema.]table (column data type [DEFAULT expr];

You specify: - Table name - Column name, column data type, and column size

Reference other Users Tables

Tables belonging to other users are not in the users schema. You should use the owners name as a prefix to the table.

The DEFAULT Option Specify a default value for a column during an insert.
hiredate DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE,

Legal values are literal value, expression, or SQL function. Illegal values are another columns name or pseudo column. The default data type must match the column data type.

Creating Tables
Create the table.
SQL> CREATE TABLE department 2 (deptno NUMBER(2), 3 dname VARCHAR2(14), 4 loc VARCHAR2(13)); Table created.

Confirm table creation.

SQL> DESCRIBE department Name Null? --------------------------- -------DEPTNO NOT NULL DNAME LOC Type --------NUMBER(2) VARCHAR2(14) VARCHAR2(13)

Querying the Data Dictionary

Describe tables owned by the user.
SQL> SELECT 2 FROM * user_tables;

View distinct object types owned by the user.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM DISTINCT object_type user_objects;

View tables, views, synonyms, and sequences owned by the user.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM * user_catalog;

Data types
Data type VARCHAR2(size) CHAR(size) NUMBER(p,s) DATE LONG CLOB RAW and LONG RAW BLOB BFILE Description Variable-length character data Fixed-length character data Variable-length numeric data Date and time values Variable-length character data up to 2 gigabytes Single-byte character data up to 4 gigabytes Raw binary data Binary data up to 4 gigabytes Binary data stored in an external file; up to 4 gigabytes

MAXIMUM SIZE

 CHAR- 4000 bytes  NUMBER- The precision p can range from 1 to 38.The scales can range from -84 to 127.  DATE- from January 1, 4712 BC to December 31, 9999 AD.  LONG- 2 Gigabytes  CLOB/BLOB 4GB

Create Table Using Subquery

Create a table and insert rows by combining the CREATE TABLE statement and AS subquery option.
CREATE TABLE table [column(, column...)] AS subquery;

Match the number of specified columns to the number of subquery columns. Define columns with column names and default values.

Create Table Using Subquery

SQL> CREATE TABLE dept30 2 AS 3 SELECT empno, ename, sal*12 ANNSAL, hiredate 4 FROM employee 5 WHERE deptno = 30; Table created. SQL> DESCRIBE dept30 Name Null? ---------------------------- -------EMPNO NOT NULL ENAME ANNSAL HIREDATE Type ----NUMBER(4) VARCHAR2(10) NUMBER DATE

ALTER TABLE Statement Add a new column Modify an existing column Drop an existing column, Define a default value for the new column
ALTER TABLE table ADD (column data type [DEFAULT expr] [, column data type]...); ALTER TABLE table MODIFY (column data type [DEFAULT expr] [, column data type]...); ALTER TABLE table DROP column column_name;

Adding a Column
DEPT30
EMPNO -----7698 7654 7499 7844 ... ENAME ANNSAL ---------- -------BLAKE 34200 MARTIN 15000 ALLEN 19200 TURNER 18000

New column
HIREDATE 01-MAY-81 28-SEP-81 20-FEB-81 08-SEP-81 JOB

add a new column into DEPT30 table

DEPT30
EMPNO -----7698 7654 7499 7844 ... ENAME ANNSAL ---------- -------BLAKE 34200 MARTIN 15000 ALLEN 19200 TURNER 18000 HIREDATE 01-MAY-81 28-SEP-81 20-FEB-81 08-SEP-81 JOB

Adding a Column You use the ADD clause to add columns.

SQL> ALTER TABLE dept30 2 ADD (job VARCHAR2(9)); Table altered.

The new column becomes the last column.

EMPNO ENAME ANNSAL HIREDATE JOB --------- ---------- --------- --------- ---7698 BLAKE 34200 01-MAY-81 7654 MARTIN 15000 28-SEP-81 7499 ALLEN 19200 20-FEB-81 7844 TURNER 18000 08-SEP-81 ... 6 rows selected.

Modifying a Column You can change a column's data type, size, and default value.
ALTER TABLE dept30 MODIFY (ename VARCHAR2(15)); Table altered.

A change to the default value affects only subsequent insertions to the table.

Set Column Unused

SYNTAX: ALTER TABLE table_name SET UNUSED COLUMN column_name

Dropping a Column You can remove a column and its contents entirely from the table.
ALTER TABLE dept30 DROP COLUMN ename; Table altered.

You can ignore the column by set unused column

SQL>ALTER TABLE dept30 set unused column ename; Table altered. SQL> ALTER TABLE dept30 drop unused columns; Table altered.

Dropping a Table

All data and structure in the table is deleted. Any pending transactions are committed. All indexes are dropped. You cannot roll back this statement.
SQL> DROP TABLE dept30; Table dropped.

Rename an Object

To change the name of a table, view, sequence, or synonym, you execute the RENAME statement.
SQL> RENAME dept TO department; Table renamed.

You must be the owner of the object.

Adding Comments to a Table You can add comments to a table or column by using the COMMENT statement.
SQL> COMMENT ON TABLE employee 2 IS 'Employee Information'; Comment created.

Comments can be viewed through the data dictionary views.

ALL_COL_COMMENTS USER_COL_COMMENTS ALL_TAB_COMMENTS USER_TAB_COMMENTS

Constraints

Objectives

Create the following types of constraints: - NOT NULL - UNIQUE key - PRIMARY KEY - FOREIGN KEY - CHECK Query the USER_CONSTRAINTS table to view all constraint definitions and names.

What Are Constraints? Constraints enforce rules at the table level.Constraints prevent the deletion of a table if there are dependencies. The following constraint types are valid in Oracle: - NOT NULL - UNIQUE Key - PRIMARY KEY - FOREIGN KEY - CHECK

Constraint Guidelines

Name a constraint or the Oracle Server will generate a name by using the SYS_Cn format. Create a constraint: - At the same time as the table is created - After the table has been created Define a constraint at the column or table level. View a constraint in the data dictionary.

Defining Constraints

CREATE TABLE [schema.]table (column data type [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint], [table_constraint]);

CREATE TABLE employee( empno NUMBER(4), ename VARCHAR2(10), deptno NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL, CONSTRAINT emp_empno_pk PRIMARY KEY (EMPNO));

Defining Constraints

Column constraint level

column [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type,

Table constraint level

column,... [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type (column, ...),

The NOT NULL Constraint

Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column

EMP
EMPNO ENAME 7839 7698 7782 7566 ... KING BLAKE CLARK JONES JOB PRESIDENT MANAGER MANAGER MANAGER ... COMM DEPTNO 10 30 10 20

NOT NULL constraint (no row may contain a null value for this column)

Absence of NOT NULL constraint (any row can contain null for this column)

NOT NULL constraint

The NOT NULL Constraint

Defined at the column level
SQL> CREATE TABLE 2 empno 3 ename 4 job 5 mgr 6 hiredate 7 sal 8 comm 9 deptno employee( NUMBER(4), VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL, VARCHAR2(9), NUMBER(4), DATE, NUMBER(7,2), NUMBER(7,2), NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL);

The UNIQUE Key Constraint

UNIQUE key constraint

DEPARTMENT
DEPTNO -----10 20 30 40 DNAME ---------ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES OPERATIONS LOC -------NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

Insert into 50 SALES 60 DETROIT BOSTON

Not allowed (DNAMESALES already exists) Allowed

The UNIQUE Key Constraint

Defined at either the table level or the column level

SQL> CREATE TABLE 2 deptno 3 dname 4 loc 5 CONSTRAINT

department( NUMBER(2), VARCHAR2(14), VARCHAR2(13), dept_dname_uk UNIQUE(dname));

PRIMARY KEY Constraint

DEPARTMENT
PRIMARY KEY DEPTNO -----10 20 30 40 DNAME ---------ACCOUNTING RESEARCH SALES OPERATIONS LOC -------NEW YORK DALLAS CHICAGO BOSTON

Insert into 20 MARKETING FINANCE DALLAS NEW YORK

Not allowed (DEPTNO20 already exists) Not allowed (DEPTNO is null)

PRIMARY KEY Constraint

Defined at either the table level or the column level

SQL> CREATE TABLE 2 deptno 3 dname 4 loc 5 CONSTRAINT 6 CONSTRAINT

department( NUMBER(2), VARCHAR2(14), VARCHAR2(13), dept_dname_uk UNIQUE (dname), dept_deptno_pk PRIMARY KEY(deptno));

FOREIGN KEY Constraint

DEPARTMENT
PRIMARY KEY DEPTNO -----10 20 ... JOB PRESIDENT MANAGER Insert into 7571 FORD 7571 FORD MANAGER MANAGER ... ... 200 200 9 DNAME ---------ACCOUNTING RESEARCH LOC -------NEW YORK DALLAS

EMPLOYEE
EMPNO ENAME 7839 KING 7698 BLAKE ... ... COMM DEPTNO 10 30 Not allowed (DEPTNO9 does not exist in the DEPT table) Allowed FOREIGN KEY

FOREIGN KEY Constraint

Defined at either the table level or the column level

SQL> CREATE TABLE employee( 2 empno NUMBER(4), 3 ename VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL, 4 job VARCHAR2(9), 5 mgr NUMBER(4), 6 hiredate DATE, 7 sal NUMBER(7,2), 8 comm NUMBER(7,2), 9 deptno NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL, 10 CONSTRAINT emp_deptno_fk FOREIGN KEY (deptno) 11 REFERENCES dept (deptno));

FOREIGN KEY Constraint

Keywords :
FOREIGN KEY Defines the column in the child table at the table constraint level REFERENCES Identifies the table and column in the parent table ON DELETE CASCADE Allows deletion in the parent table and deletion of the dependent rows in the child table

The CHECK Constraint Defines a condition that each row must satisfy Expressions that are not allowed: - References to pseudo columns CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, and ROWNUM - Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV functions - Queries that refer to other values in other rows
..., deptno NUMBER(2), CONSTRAINT emp_deptno_ck CHECK (DEPTNO BETWEEN 10 AND 99),...

Adding a Constraint

ALTER TABLE table ADD [CONSTRAINT constraint] type (column);

Add or drop, but not modify, a constraint Enable or disable constraints Add a NOT NULL constraint by using the MODIFY clause

Adding a Constraint
Add a FOREIGN KEY constraint to the EMP table indicating that a manager must already exist as a valid employee in the EMP table.

SQL> ALTER TABLE employee 2 ADD CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_fk 3 FOREIGN KEY(mgr) REFERENCES emp(empno); Table altered.

Dropping a Constraint Remove the emp_mgr_fk constraint from the EMP table.
SQL> ALTER TABLE 2 DROP CONSTRAINT Table altered. EMP emp_mgr_fk;

Remove the PRIMARY KEY constraint on the DEPT table and drop the associated FOREIGN KEY constraint on the EMP.DEPTNO column.
SQL> ALTER TABLE DEPT 2 DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE; Table altered.

Disabling Constraints Execute the DISABLE clause of the ALTER TABLE statement to deactivate an integrity constraint. Apply the CASCADE option to disable dependent integrity constraints.
SQL> ALTER TABLE 2 DISABLE CONSTRAINT Table altered. EMP emp_empno_pk CASCADE;

Enabling Constraints Activate an integrity constraint currently disabled in the table definition by using the ENABLE clause.
SQL> ALTER TABLE 2 ENABLE CONSTRAINT Table altered. EMP emp_empno_pk;

A UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY index is automatically created if you enable a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY constraint.

Viewing Constraints
Query the USER_CONSTRAINTS table to view all constraint definitions and names.

SQL> 2 3 4

SELECT constraint_name, constraint_type, search_condition FROM user_constraints WHERE table_name = 'EMPLOYEE'; C C C P SEARCH_CONDITION ------------------------EMPNO IS NOT NULL DEPTNO IS NOT NULL

CONSTRAINT_NAME -----------------------SYS_C00674 SYS_C00675 EMP_EMPNO_PK ...

Columns with Constraints

View the columns associated with the constraint names in the USER_CONS_COLUMNS view

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM 3 WHERE

constraint_name, column_name user_cons_columns table_name = 'EMPLOYEE'; COLUMN_NAME ---------------------DEPTNO EMPNO MGR EMPNO DEPTNO

CONSTRAINT_NAME ------------------------EMP_DEPTNO_FK EMP_EMPNO_PK EMP_MGR_FK SYS_C00674 SYS_C00675

Summary Create the following types of constraints: - NOT NULL - UNIQUE key - PRIMARY KEY - FOREIGN KEY - CHECK Query the USER_CONSTRAINTS table to view all constraint definitions and names.

Views

Objectives Describe a view Create a view Retrieve data through a view Alter the definition of a view Insert, update, and delete data through a view Drop a view

Database Objects

Object Table

Description Basic unit of storage; composed of rows and columns Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables Generates primary key values Improves the performance of some queries Alternative name for an object

View

Sequence Index Synonym

Why Use Views?

To restrict database access To make complex queries easy To allow data independence To present different views of the same data

Creating a View
You embed a subquery within the CREATE VIEW statement.
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE|NOFORCE] VIEW view [(alias[, alias]...)] ASThe subquery can contain complex SELECT subquery [WITH READ ONLY] syntax.

The subquery cannot contain an ORDER BY clause.

Creating a View Create a view, EMPVU10, that contains details of employees in department 10.
SQL> 2 3 4 View CREATE VIEW AS SELECT FROM WHERE created. empvu10 empno, ename, job employee deptno = 10;

Describe the structure of the view by using the SQL*Plus DESCRIBE command.
SQL> DESCRIBE empvu10

Creating a View Create a view by using column aliases in the subquery.

SQL> 2 3 4 5 View CREATE VIEW AS SELECT FROM WHERE created. salvu30 empno EMPLOYEE_NUMBER, ename NAME, sal SALARY employee deptno = 30;

Select the columns from this view by the given alias names.

Retrieving Data from a View

SQL> 2

SELECT * FROM salvu30; NAME SALARY ---------- --------BLAKE 2850 MARTIN 1250 ALLEN 1600 TURNER 1500 JAMES 950 WARD 1250

EMPLOYEE_NUMBER --------------7698 7654 7499 7844 7900 7521

6 rows selected.

Querying a View

SQL*Plus
SELECT * FROM empvu10;

USER_VIEWS
EMPVU10
SELECT FROM WHERE empno, ename, job employee deptno = 10;

7839 7782 7934

KING PRESIDENT CLARK MANAGER MILLER CLERK

EMP

Modifying a View Modify the EMPVU10 view by using CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW clause. Add an alias for each column name.
SQL> 2 3 4 5 View CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu10 (employee_number, employee_name, job_title) AS SELECT empno, ename, job FROM employee WHERE deptno = 10; created.

Column aliases in the CREATE VIEW clause are listed in the same order as the columns in the subquery.

Creating a Complex View

Create a complex view that contains group functions to display values from two tables.

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6 7 View

CREATE VIEW AS SELECT FROM WHERE GROUP BY created.

dept_sum_vu (name, minsal, maxsal, avgsal) d.dname, MIN(e.sal), MAX(e.sal), AVG(e.sal) employee e, department d e.deptno = d.deptno d.dname;

DML Operations on a View

Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View

You can perform DML operations on simple views. You cannot remove a row if the view contains the following: - Group functions - A GROUP BY clause - The DISTINCT keyword

DML Operations on a View

Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View

You cannot modify data in a view if it contains: - Any of the conditions previously mentioned - Columns defined by expressions - The ROWNUM pseudo column You cannot add data if: - The view contains any of the conditions mentioned above or previously mentioned - There are NOT NULL columns in the base tables that are not selected by the view

Denying DML Operations

You can ensure that no DML operations occur by adding the WITH READ ONLY option to your view definition.

SQL> 2 3 4 5 6 View

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu10 (employee_number, employee_name, job_title) AS SELECT empno, ename, job FROM employee WHERE deptno = 10 WITH READ ONLY; created.

Any attempt to perform a DML on any row in the view will result in Oracle Server error ORA01752.

Removing a View

Remove a view without losing data because a view is based on underlying tables in the database.

DROP VIEW view;

SQL> DROP VIEW empvu10; View dropped.

Summary A view is derived from data in other tables or other views. A view provides the following advantages: - Restricts database access - Simplifies queries - Provides data independence - Allows multiple views of the same data - Can be dropped without removing the underlying data

Synonyms, Indexes and Sequences

Objectives

Describe some database objects and their uses Create, maintain, and use sequences Create and maintain indexes Create private and public synonyms

Database Objects

Object Table

Description Basic unit of storage; composed of rows and columns Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables Generates primary key values Improves the performance of some queries Alternative name for an object

View

Sequence Index Synonym

What Is a Sequence?

Automatically generates unique numbers Is a sharable object Is typically used to create a primary key value Replaces application code Speeds up the efficiency of accessing sequence values when cached in memory

Creating a Sequence
Define a sequence to generate sequential numbers automatically

CREATE SEQUENCE sequence [INCREMENT BY n] [START WITH n] [{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}] [{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}] [{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}] [{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];

Creating a Sequence
Create a sequence named DEPT_DEPTNO to be used for the primary key of the DEPARTMENT table. Do not use the CYCLE option.

SQL> CREATE SEQUENCE dept_deptno 2 INCREMENT BY 1 3 START WITH 91 4 MAXVALUE 100 5 created.

Confirming Sequences

Verify your sequence values in the USER_SEQUENCES data dictionary table.

SQL> SELECT 2 3 FROM sequence_name, min_value, max_value, increment_by, last_number user_sequences;

The LAST_NUMBER column displays the next available sequence number.

Pseudo columns NEXTVAL returns the next available sequence value. CURRVAL obtains the current sequence value. ROWID uniquely identify the rows in your table. LEVEL a special column you can reference only in a hierarchical query

Using a Sequence Insert a new department named MARKETING in San Diego.

SQL> INSERT INTO 2 VALUES 3 1 row created. departmnent(deptno, dname, loc) (dept_deptno.NEXTVAL, 'MARKETING', 'SAN DIEGO');

View the current value for the DEPT_DEPTNO sequence.

SQL> SELECT 2 FROM dept_deptno.CURRVAL dual;

Using a Sequence Caching sequence values in memory allows faster access to those values. Gaps in sequence values can occur when:
- A rollback occurs - The system crashes - A sequence is used in another table

View the next available sequence, if it was created with NOCACHE, by querying the USER_SEQUENCES table.

Modifying a Sequence

Change the increment value, maximum value, minimum value, cycle option, or cache option.

SQL> ALTER SEQUENCE dept_deptno 2 INCREMENT BY 1 3 MAXVALUE 999999 4 NOCACHE 5 NOCYCLE; Sequence altered.

Removing a Sequence

Remove a sequence from the data dictionary by using the DROP SEQUENCE statement. Once removed, the sequence can no longer be referenced.
SQL> DROP SEQUENCE dept_deptno; Sequence dropped.

What Is an Index?

Schema object Used by the Oracle Server to speed up the retrieval of rows by using a pointer Reduces disk I/O by using rapid path access method to locate the data quickly Independent of the table it indexes Automatically used and maintained by the Oracle Server

How Are Indexes Created?

Automatically
- A unique index is created automatically when you define a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE key constraint in a table definition.

Manually
- Users can create nonunique indexes on columns to speed up access time to the rows.

Creating an Index Create an index on one or more columns

CREATE INDEX index ON table (column[, column]...);

Improve the speed of query access on the ENAME column in the EMP table
SQL> CREATE INDEX 2 ON Index created. emp_ename_idx employee(ename);

Confirming Indexes The USER_INDEXES data dictionary view contains the name of the index and its uniqueness. The USER_IND_COLUMNS view contains the index name, the table name, and the column name.
SQL> 2 3 4 5 SELECT FROM WHERE AND ic.index_name, ic.column_name, ic.column_position col_pos,ix.uniqueness user_indexes ix, user_ind_columns ic ic.index_name = ix.index_name ic.table_name = 'EMP';

Removing an Index Remove an index from the data dictionary.

SQL> DROP INDEX index;

Remove the EMP_ENAME_IDX index from the data dictionary.

SQL> DROP INDEX emp_ename_idx; Index dropped.

To drop an index, you must be the owner of the index or have the DROP ANY INDEX privilege.

Synonyms
Purpose Use the CREATE SYNONYM statement to create a synonym, which is an alternative name for a table, view, sequence, procedure, stored function, package, materialized view, Java class schema object, user-defined object type, or another synonym. Synonyms provide both data independence and location transparency. Synonyms permit applications to function without modification regardless of which user owns the table or view and regardless of which database holds the table or view. However, synonyms are not a substitute for privileges on database objects. Such privileges must be granted to a user before the user can use the synonym. You can refer to synonyms in the following DML statements: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, EXPLAIN PLAN, and LOCK TABLE. You can refer to synonyms in the following DDL statements: AUDIT, NOAUDIT, GRANT, REVOKE, and COMMENT.

Synonyms

Prerequisites To create a private synonym in your own schema, you must have CREATE SYNONYM system privilege. To create a private synonym in another users schema, you must have CREATE ANY SYNONYM system privilege. To create a PUBLIC synonym, you must have CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM system privilege.

Synonyms

Simplify access to objects by creating a synonym (another name for an object).

Refer to a table owned by another user. Shorten lengthy object names.

CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synonym FOR object;

Create & Remove Synonyms

Create a shortened name / SYNONYM for the DEPT_SUM_VU view.

SQL> CREATE SYNONYM d_sum 2 FOR dept_sum_vu; Synonym Created.

Drop a synonym.
SQL> DROP SYNONYM d_sum; Synonym dropped.

DCL Statements

Objectives

Create users Create roles to ease setup and maintenance of the security model GRANT and REVOKE object privileges

Controlling User Access

Database administrator

Username and password privileges

Users

Privileges

Database security - System security - Data security System privileges: Gain access to the database Object privileges: Manipulate the content of the database objects Schema: Collection of objects, such as tables, views, and sequences

System Privileges

More than 80 privileges are available. The DBA has high-level system privileges. - Create new users - Remove users - Remove tables - Backup tables

Creating Users

The DBA creates users by using the CREATE USER statement. CREATE USER IDENTIFIED BY user password;

SQL> CREATE USER scott 2 IDENTIFIED BY tiger; User created.

User System Privileges

Once a user is created, the DBA can grant specific system privileges to a user.
GRANT privilege [, privilege...] TO user [, user...];

An application developer may have the following system privileges: CREATE SESSION CREATE TABLE CREATE SEQUENCE CREATE VIEW CREATE PROCEDURE

Granting System Privileges

The DBA can grant a user specific system privileges.

SQL> GRANT create table, create sequence, create view 2 TO scott; Grant succeeded.

What Is a Role?

Users

Manager

Privileges Allocating privileges without a role Allocating privileges with a role

Creating Roles

SQL> CREATE ROLE manager; Role created.

SQL> GRANT create table, create view 2 to manager; Grant succeeded.

SQL> GRANT manager to BLAKE, CLARK; Grant succeeded.

Changing Your Password

When the user account is created, a password is initialized. Users can change their password by using the ALTER USER statement.
SQL> ALTER USER scott 2 IDENTIFIED BY lion; User altered.

Object Privileges
Object Privilege ALTER DELETE EXECUTE INDEX INSERT REFERENCES SELECT UPDATE Table View Sequence Procedure

Object Privileges Object privileges vary from object to object. An owner has all the privileges on the object. An owner can give specific privileges on that owners object.
GRANT ON TO [WITH GRANT object_priv [(columns)] object {user|role|PUBLIC} OPTION];

Granting Object Privileges Grant query privileges on the EMP table.

SQL> GRANT select 2 ON employee 3 TO sue, rich; Grant succeeded.

Grant privileges to update specific columns to users and roles.

SQL> GRANT update (dname, loc) 2 ON department 3 TO scott, manager; Grant succeeded.

GRANT Keywords

WITH GRANT OPTION & PUBLIC Keywords

Give a user authority to pass along the privileges.
SQL> GRANT select, insert 2 ON department 3 TO scott 4 WITH GRANT OPTION; Grant succeeded.

Allow all users on the system to query data from Alices DEPARTMENT table.
SQL> GRANT select 2 ON alice.department 3 TO PUBLIC; Grant succeeded.

Confirming Privileges Granted

Data Dictionary Table ROLE_SYS_PRIVS ROLE_TAB_PRIVS USER_ROLE_PRIVS USER_TAB_PRIVS_MADE USER_TAB_PRIVS_RECD USER_COL_PRIVS_MADE USER_COL_PRIVS_RECD Description System privileges granted to roles Table privileges granted to roles Roles accessible by the user Object privileges granted on the user's objects Object privileges granted to the user Object privileges granted on the columns of the user's objects Object privileges granted to the user on specific columns

Revoke Object Privileges You use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges granted to other users. Privileges granted to others through the WITH GRANT OPTION will also be revoked.

REVOKE {privilege [, privilege...]|ALL} ON object FROM {user[, user...]|role|PUBLIC} [CASCADE CONSTRAINTS];

Revoking Object Privileges

As user Alice, revoke the SELECT and INSERT privileges given to user Scott on the DEPARTMENT table.

SQL> REVOKE select, insert 2 ON department 3 FROM scott; Revoke succeeded.

Summary

CREATE USER GRANT

Allows the DBA to create a user Allows the user to give other users privileges to access the user's objects

CREATE ROLE ALTER USER password REVOKE

Allows the DBA to create a collection of privileges Allows users to change their Removes privileges on an object from users

The Oracle Architecture

Objectives
 Oracle

Architecture  Oracle Database  The Study Phases Objectives - The Memory Architecture - The Disk Architecture - The Back Ground Processes  The Logical Architecture  The Physical Architecture  How Oracle Works

Understanding Oracle Database

Overview of oracle Database Architecture

 Memory Structure  Process Structure  Storage Structure  New Features

Overview of Oracle Architecture

PMON

SMON

RECO

D000

S000

P000

* Total SGA Size : 1700 Mbyte * Fixed Size : 70 Kbyte * Variavle Size : 490 MByte

SGA
Shared SQL Area Database Buffer Cashe

Redo Log Buffer

TL-812
4,000,000 KByte 1,200,000 KByte 2,100 KByte

DBW0

CKPT

LGWR

Data File Raw Device

ARCH
Archive Log Mode(50M)

Oracle Architecture

Oracle Database
Oracle Database

Physical

Logical

Tablespaces DB Files Non DB Files Segments DataFile RedologFile PWD File INIT File

Extents

Control File

Archived Log File

Data Blocks

The 3 Base

1. Memory Architecture

2. Disk Architecture

3. Background Processes

Memory / Disk Architecture

Disk
Background processes Disk Architecture

SGA

Disk Architecture

DATA FILES

LOG FILES

CONTROL FILES

Data Files

A Particular Data File is associated with only

one Database and one Tablespace.

They Dynamically Extend when the database runs out of space. One or more Data files may compose of a Tablespace.

Redo Log File

Record all changes made to the Data. Instance Recovery Multiplexing Log Files for Security.

Control File

The constituents shall be : Name of Database Names and Location of Physical Files Timestamp of the database. Recovery information

Memory Architecture

Memory Architecture

Program Global area

System Global Area

INSTANCE

SGA + Background Process

Oracle Instance Oracle Instance =

Shared pool

SGA + Background Processes

Instance Memory structures

Redo log buffer cache

SGA
Library cache Data Dictionary cache

Database buffer cache

PMON

SMON

DBWR

LGWR

CKPT

Others

Background structures

Shared Global Area

The Shared Global Area gets initialized during the startup and it is released during the shutdown.

SHARED POOL
LIBRARY CACHE DICTONARY CACHE

DB BUFFER

LOG BUFFER

Database and Log Buffers

Database Buffer Cache The Latest used blocks by the Database. Minimize the disk IO and Improve Performance. Redo log Buffer Cache Stores the log of modifications made to the database.

Shared Pool

Stores information about most recently

executed SQL and PL/SQL statements. Stores most recently used data definitions.

Shared Pool

Library Cache + Dictionary Cache

Program Global Area

Memory allocated when a session is stared and deallocated when the session terminated.

Used by only one session ( Unique to each session). The Server Process Control Information is available here.

Background Processes - DBWR : Writes the modified blocks from the database buffer cache to the data files. - LGWR : Writes redo log entries to the redo log files

- SMON : Dedicated to perform instance recovery, It Cleans up Temp segments that are not in use and coalesce Free Extents. - PMON : Performs recovery when a client/user process fails. - Dnnn : Dispatcher processes are present in a Shared server configuration.

Background Processes - CKPT : Responsible for instructing the DBWR to update the datafiles when ever a CKPT occurs and also update control file with most recent CKPT information. - ARCH : Copies the online Redolog files when there is a log switch. The copied files are called offline/archived redo log files. - RECO : Used in a distributed environment when the transactions are pending due to some network failures.

Logical Structure TABLE SPACE SEGMENTS EXTENTS BLOCKS

Data Files and Tablespaces

Enlarging Tablespace

By adding a Data File

Enlarging Tablespace

By Dynamically Sizing Data Files

Enlarging Database

By adding a Tablespace

How Oracle Works

How Oracle Works User process from the Workstation. The Server detects the connection and a Dedicated server process gets created. The Server Process receives the Request and is checked in the shared pool. At PGA : A Private SQL Area is created.