Relational Algebra

Relational Query Languages

Query languages: Allow manipulation and retrieval of data from a database. Relational model supports simple, powerful query languages:

Strong formal foundation based on logic. Allows for much optimization. QLs not expected to be Turing complete. QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations. QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.
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Query Languages != programming languages!

Formal Relational Query Languages

Two mathematical Query Languages form the basis for real languages (e.g. SQL), and for implementation: Relational Algebra: More operational, very useful for representing execution plans. Relational Calculus: Lets users describe what they want, rather than how to compute it. (Nonoperational, declarative.)  Understanding Algebra & Calculus is key to  understanding SQL, query processing!
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Preliminaries
A query is applied to relation instances, and the result of a query is also a relation instance.

Schemas of input relations for a query are fixed The schema for the result of a given query is also fixed! Determined by definition of query language constructs. Positional notation easier for formal definitions, namedfield notation more readable. Both used in SQL

Positional vs. named-field notation:

Example Instances
Sailors and Reserves

R1 sid

22 58

bid day 101 10/10/96 103 11/12/96

relations for our examples. S1 sid Well use positional or 22 named field notation, 31 assume that names of fields in query results are 58 `inherited from names of fields in query input S2 sid relations. 28

sname rating age dustin 7 45.0 lubber 8 55.5 rusty 10 35.0 sname rating age yuppy 9 35.0 lubber 8 55.5 guppy 5 35.0 rusty 10 35.0
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31 44 58

Relational Algebra
Basic operations:

Selection ( W ) Selects a subset of rows from relation. Projection ( T ) Deletes unwanted columns from relation. Cross-product ( v ) Allows us to combine two relations. Set-difference (  ) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2. Union ( ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2. Intersection, join, division, renaming: Not essential, but (very!) useful.

Additional operations:

Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be composed! (Algebra is closed.)
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Projection ( T)
Deletes attributes that are not in projection list. Schema of result contains exactly the fields in the projection list, with the same names that they had in the (only) input relation. Projection operator has to eliminate duplicates! (Why??) Note: real systems typically dont do duplicate elimination unless the user explicitly asks for it. (Why not?)

sname yuppy lubber guppy rusty

rating 9 8 5 10

T sna

(S2) e, rating
age 35.0 55.5

T age(S2)

Selection ( W )
Selects rows that satisfy selection condition. No duplicates in result! (Why?) Schema of result identical to schema of (only) input relation. Result relation can be the input for another relational algebra operation! (Operator composition.)

sid s a e 28 58 r st

rati 9 10

a e 35.0 35.0

W rating "8(S2)
s a e r st rati 9 10

T sname,rating(W rating "8(S2))

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Union, Intersection, Set-Difference

All of these operations take two input relations, which must be union-compatible: Same number of fields. `Corresponding fields have the same type. What is the schema of result?

si 22 31 58 44 28

sname ustin lubber rusty guppy yuppy

rating age 7 8 10 5 9 45.0 55.5 35.0 35.0 35.0

S1 S2
si 31 58 sname rating age lubber 8 55.5 rusty 10 35.0

sid 22

s a e d sti

rati 7

a e 45.0

S1 S2

S1 S2
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Cross-Product (v)
S1 v R1 : Each row of S1 is paired with each row of R1. Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1, with field names `inherited if possible.

Conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a field called sid.

(sid) s a e rati 22 22 31 31 58 58 d sti d sti l l r st r st er er 7 7 8 8 10 10 a e 45.0 45.0 55.5 55.5 35.0 35.0 (sid) 22 58 22 58 22 58 id da 101 10/10/96 103 11/12/96 101 10/10/96 103 11/12/96 101 10/10/96 103 11/12/96

 Renaming operator:

V (C(1p sid1, 5 p sid 2), S1v 1)

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Joins
Condition Join: R
(si ) 22 31 sname ustin lubber rating 7 8
C

S = Wc( R v S )
(si ) 58 58 bi 103 103 ay 11 12 96 11 12 96

age 45.0 55.5

S1

R1
S1.sid < R1.sid

Result schema same as that of cross-product. Fewer tuples than cross-product, might be able to compute more efficiently Sometimes called a theta-join.
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Joins
Equi-Join: A special case of condition join where the condition c contains only equalities.
sid 22 58 s a e d sti r st rati 7 10
sid

a e 45.0 35.0

id 101 103

da 10/10/96 11/12/96

S1

R1

Result schema similar to cross-product, but only one copy of fields for which equality is specified. Natural Join: Equijoin on all common fields.
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Division
Not supported as a primitive operator, but useful for expressing queries like: Find sailors who have reserved all boats. Let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have only field y: A/B = _ x |  x , y  y a
i.e., A/B contains all x tuples (sailors) such that for every y tuple (boat) in B, there is an xy tuple in A. Or: If the set of y values (boats) associated with an x value (sailor) in A contains all y values in B, the x value is in A/B.

In general, x and y can be any lists of fields; y is the list of fields in B, and x y is the list of fields of A.
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Examples of Division A/B

sno s1 s1 s1 s1 s2 s2 s3 s4 s4 pno p1 p2 p3 p4 p1 p2 p2 p2 p4
pno p2

B1
sno s1 s2 s3 s4

pno p2 p4

B2

pno p1 p2 p4

B3
sno s1 s4 sno s1

A/B1

A/B2

A/B3
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Expressing A/B Using Basic Operators

Division is not an essential op; just a useful shorthand.

(Also true of joins, but joins are so common that systems implement joins specially.)

Idea: For A/B, compute all x values that are not `disqualified by some y value in B.

x value is disqualified if by attaching y value from B, we obtain an xy tuple that is not in A. Disq alified x val es:

T x ((T x ( ) v )  )
all disq alified t les
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A/B:

T x ( A) 

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Find names of sailors whove reserved boat #103

 Solution 1:

T sname((W


bid !103

Reserves)

Sailors)

Solution 2: V (Temp1, W

bid ! 103

Re serves) Sailors)

V ( Temp 2, Temp 1 T sna e (Te p2)



Solution 3: T (W sname bid ! 103(Re serves

Sailors ))
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Find names of sailors whove reserved a red boat

 Information about boat color is only available in Boats; so need an extra join:
T


W sname (( color !' red ' Boats )

Re serves

Sailors )

A more efficient solution:

Re s) Sailors )

T sname (T W ((T Boats ) !' red ' sid bid color

 A query optimizer can find this given the first solution!

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Find sailors whove reserved a red or a green boat

Can identify all red or green boats, then find sailors whove reserved one of these boats:
V (Tempboats, (W color !' red ' color ! ' green ' Boats))

T sname (Tempboats



Reserves

Sailors )

Can also define Tempboats using union! (How?) What happens if is replaced by in this query?
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Find sailors whove reserved a red and a green boat

Previous approach wont work! Must identify sailors whove reserved red boats, sailors whove reserved green boats, then find the intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):

V (Tempred , T ((W color ! red Boats) Reserves )) sid ' ' V (Tempgreen , T ((W Boats) Reserves )) sid color !' green '

T sname ((Tempred Tempgreen )

Sailors )

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Find the names of sailors whove reserved all boats

 Uses division; schemas of the input relations to / must be carefully chosen:

V (Tempsids, (T

sid, bid

Re serves) / ( T
Sailors )

bid

Boats))

T


sname

(Tempsids

To find sailors whove reserved all Interlake boats:

/T
.....

bid

(W

bna e ! Interlake

Boats)
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