Group One Presents:

Functions:
y Contributes to homeostasis by providing for the

exchange of gases oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmospheric air, blood, and tissue cells. y It also helps adjust the pH of body fluids. y Produces sounds y Moves air over the sensory receptors that detect smell y Protects against some microorganism

Respiration:
y refers to the overall exchange of gases

between the atmosphere, blood & cells

y Respiration involves 3 processes:
 Pulmonary ventilation  Gas exchange
 External respiration  Internal respiration

 Gas transport

Anatomy Overview
y According to Structure: (1) Upper respiratory system nose, pharnyx, associated structures (2) Lower respiratory system larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs y According to Function: (1) Conducting Zone interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside & within the lungs that filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs (2) Respiratory Zone tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs

Anatomy Overview
Nasal cavity Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

The respiratory tract includes: Nose (nasal cavity) Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx) Larynx Trachea Bronchi (primary, secondary (lobar), tertiary (segmental) Bronchioles Terminal bronchioles Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar ducts Alveoli

Bronchi Bronchioles Respiratory bronchioles

Right Lung

Left Lung

Alveolar duct

Alveoli

Nose
y External Nose supporting framework of bone &

hyaline cartilage covered with muscle & skin and lined by a mucous membrane.
y Bony Framework

frontal bone, nasal bone, maxillae y Cartilaginous Framework septal cartilage, lateral nasal cartilage, alar cartilage y Two openings external nares or nostrils y 3 Functions: (1) warming, moistening, & filtering air; (2) detecting olfactory stimuli; (3) modifying speech vibrations

Nose
y Internal Nose

is lined with muscle and mucous

membrane
y Anteriorly, it merges with external nose & posteriorly it

y y y y y

communicates with pharynx through two openings called internal nares or choanae Ducts from paranasal sinuses and the nasolacrimal ducts also open into the internal nose. The space within the internal nose is called the nasal cavity. Vestibule is the anterior part of the nasal cavity just inside the nostril is surrounded by cartilage Nasal septum divides nasal cavity into right & left side Conchae increases the surface area of nasal cavity

Pharnyx
y Or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube about 13 cm (5 in)

long that starts at the internal nares and extends to the level of cricoid cartilage y Functions as passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for speech sound, and houses the tonsils y 3 region: (1) nasopharnyx, (2) oropharynx, and (laryngopharnyx)

y Nasopharynx has 5 openings it its wall. The posterior

wall also contains the pharyngeal tonsil. It is lined with pseudo ciliated columnar epithelium. y Oropharynx has only 1 opening (fauces). It has both respiratory and digestive functions. It is lined w/ non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. 2 pairs of tonsils (palatine & lingual) are found in oropharynx. y Laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) opens into the esophagus (food tube) posteriorly and the larynx anteriorly. It is also both a respiratory and digestive pathway and is line by nonkeratized stratified squamous epithelium.

Larynx
y Or voice box, is a short passageway that connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea. y Located just below the pharynx and is composed of 9 pieces of cartilage. y Vocal cords 2 short elastic tissue bands, covered with mucous membrane, that stretch across the interior of the larynx. y Muscles that attach to the larynx cartilages can pull on these cords and increase the tension higher pitched sound. When they relax less tension and a lower pitched sound.

Larynx
Air passageway made of 9 pieces of cartilage (1) Thyroid cartilage, (1) Epiglottis, (1) Cricoid cartilage, (2) Arytenoid, (2) Corniculate, (2) Cuneiform A.K.A your voicebox because it contains the vocal cords

 Arytenoid, corniculate & cuneiform cartilages attach to upper (false) vocal folds & lower (true) vocal cords

Trachea
y or windpipe, is a tubular passageway for air that is

about 12 cm (5 in) long and 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. y located anterior to the esophagus and extends from larynx to the superior border of the fifth thoracic vertebra(T5), where it divides into right and left primary bronchi

Trachea
y Layers of Tracheal wall y Mucosa
y

Consists of an epithelial layer of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and an underlying layer of lamina propria that contains elastic and reticular fibers. It provides the same protection against dust as the membrane lining the nasal cavity and larynx. Consists of areolar connective tissue that contains seromucous glands and their ducts The seromucous gland secretes a combination of water and mucus to the luminar surface of the trachea through narrow ducts. The mucus adds to that secreted by the goblet cells.

y Submucosa
y

Trach a
y Hyaline cartilage y C-shaped cartilages y the trachealis muscle, a transverse smooth muscle fibers stabilize the open ends of the cartilage rings. y The solid C-shaped cartilage rings provide a semirigid support

so that the tracheal wall does not collapse inward (especially during inhalation) y Adventitia
y

Consists of areolar connective tissue that joins the trachea to surrounding tissues.

y Tracheotomy- an operation to make an opening into

the trachea y Intubation- a tube is inserted into the mouth or nose and passed inferiorly through the larynx and trachea.

Trachea
 Tough but flexible windpipe , anterior

to esophagus
 attached to cricoid cartilage (at about C6 vertebral level) & ends within mediastinum by branching into left & right primary bronchi (at T5 vertebral level)  End of trachea known as Carina

Carina

Bronchi
y Trachea divides into right and left primary

(extrapulmonary) bronchi. y On entering the lungs the bronchi become the intrapulmonary bronchi. y The left bronchus divides into two lobar bronchial branches, the right - into three lobar bronchial branches. y The lobar bronchi of the left lung give rise to eight segmental bronchi, in right lung - to ten segmental bronchi.

Bronchi
Carina

 Trachea splits into a left & right primary bronchus which enters into the hilus of each lung  Within the lung, the primary bronchi branch into secondary (lobar) bronchi (3 in right lung/2 in left lung)  Secondary bronchi then branch into 10 tertiary (segmental) bronchi  Tertiary bronchi then continue to branch into smaller & smaller bronchi & then into very narrow bronchioles

This branching patterns creates the bronchial tree

Bronchi
y Changes in Airway:
y As you go further down into the bronchial tree of each lung, changes in the airway occur: 

increased number of airways (1 primary; 2 or 3 secondary; 10 tertiary bronchi; 6000 terminal bronchioles; millions of alveolar ducts)

 decreased diameter of each airway  decreased amount of cartilage in the airways (no cartilage at all by terminal bronchioles)  increased amount of smooth muscle (relative to diameter)  lining epithelium changes from PSCC epithelium (in alveoli)

simple squamous

Lungs
y are paired cone-shaped organs in the thoracic cavity. They are separated from each other by the heart and the structure mediastinum. y It consist of airways (trachea and bronchi) that divide into smaller and smaller branches until they reach the air sacs, called alveoli. The airways conduct air down to the alveoli where gas exchange takes place. y The main function of the lungs is to provide continuous gas exchange between inspired air and the blood in the pulmonary circulation, supplying oxygen and removing carbon dioxide, which is then cleared from the lungs by subsequent expiration.

Lungs
y Secondary (lobar) bronchi and the left primary

bronchus give rise to superior and inferior secondary (lobar) bronchi. Within the lung the secondary bronchi give rise to the tertiary (segmental) bronchi, which is constant in both origin and distribution. y Alveoli is a cup-shaped out pouching lined by simple squamous ephithelium and supported by a thin elastic basement membrane an alveolar sac consist of two or more alveoli consist of two types of alveolar epithelial cells. The more numerous type I alveolar cells that form a nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall. Type II alveolar cells are called septal cells.

Lungs- Anatomical Features

Apex extends 1 above clavicle Hilus at medial surface; where primary bronchus, pulmonary artery & veins enter/exit lung Superior lobe Horizontal fissure Middle lobe Oblique fissure Inferior lobe Superior lobe
Right lung

Left lung

Oblique fissure

Cardiac notch Inferior lobe

Base rests on diaphragm

Airways within Lungs

 Each lung has a primary
bronchus entering at the hilus
 Each lobe of a lung has a secondary (a.k.a. lobar) bronchus  Lobes are functionally divided into bronchopulmonary segments & each segment has a tertiary (segmental) bronchus  Segments are functionally divided into many lobules & each lobule receives a terminal bronchiole

Alveoli
 Alveoli are expanded chambers of epithelial tissue that are the exchange surfaces of the lungs  There are about 150 million alveoli in each lung  Multiple alveoli usually share a common alveolar duct, creating alveolar sacs

Alveoli
There are three types of cells found within alveoli:
 Alveolar Squamous epithelial (aka type I ) cells primary cells making up the wall of the alveoli  Septal (aka type II ) cells sectrete surfactant to reduce surface tension which prevents alveoli from sticking together & allows for easier gas exchange  Alveolar macrophages (aka dust cells ) phagocytic cells that remove dust, debris & pathogens

ul

ary V tilati

y Is the exchange (movement) of gases between

the atmosphere & lungs; movement of gases occurs because of pressure differences between the atmosphere (atmospheric pressure (Po)) & lungs (intrapulmonic pressure (Pi))

Pulmonary entilation
y Two phases of ventilation:
 Inspiration


active process involving contraction of diaphragm & external intercostal muscles

 Expiration
 

normally passive due to relaxation of above muscles can be made active (forced expiration) due to contraction of abdominals & internal intercostal muscles

Pulmonary entilation

Lung V lume and Capacities

y Tidal volume- the volume of one breath y Minute ventilation- the total volume of inhaled and

exhaled each minute- is respiratory rate multiplied by tidal volume: y MV=12 breaths/min x 5000 mL/breath = 6 liters/min y A lower than normal minute ventilation usually is a sign of pulmonary malfunction y Spirometer/respirpmeter- apparatus commonly used to measure the volume of air exchanged during breathing and the respiratory rate. The record is called the spinogram.
y Inhalation is recorded as an upward deflection, and

exhalation is recorded as a downward deflection.

Lung olume and a acities

y Anatomic (respiratory) dead space- conducting

airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange y Alveolar ventilation rate- is the volume of air per minute that actually reaches the respiratory zone. y Inspiratory reserve volume- additional inhaled air
y About 3100 mL in an average adult male and 1900 mL in an

average adult female

y Expiratory reserve volume- additional exhaled air. y Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV ), the

volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in 1 second with maximal effort following a maximal inhalation.

Lung olume and a acities

y Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV ), the

volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in 1 second with maximal effort following a maximal inhalation. y Residual volume- volume which cannot be measured by spirometry. This amounts to about 1200 mL in males and 1100 mL in females. y Minimal volume- provides a medical and legal tool for determining wheter a baby is born dead(stillborn) or died after birth.

Lung olume and a acties

y Lung capacities are combinations of specific lung y y y y

volumes Inspiratory capacity- is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume Functional residual capacity- is the sum of residual volume and expiratory reserve volume Vital capacity- is the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume Total lung capacity- is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume

Gas Exchange
y The exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) between the alveoli

& the blood occurs by simple diffusion: O2 diffusing from the alveoli into the blood & CO2 from the blood into the alveoli. Diffusion requires a concentration gradient. So, the concentration (or pressure) of O2 in the alveoli must be kept at a higher level than in the blood & the concentration (or pressure) of CO2 in the alveoli must be kept at a lower lever than in the blood. We do this, of course, by breathing - continuously bringing fresh air (with lots of O2 & little CO2) into the lungs & the alveoli.

Gas Exchange
y Breathing is an active process - requiring the

contraction of skeletal muscles. The primary muscles of respiration include the external intercostal muscles (located between the ribs) and the diaphragm (a sheet of muscle located between the thoracic & abdominal cavities).

Gas Exchange
 External respiration - the diffusion of O2 & CO2 between the alveoli & blood across the respiratory membrane  occurs because of pressure differences of each gas within alveolar air & pulmonary (deoxygenated) blood  results in creation of oxygenated blood

Gas Exchange
 Internal respiration the diffusion of O2 & CO2 between the blood & interstitial fluid across the endothelium of systemic capillaries  occurs because of pressure differences of each gas between systemic (oxygenated) blood & interstitial fluid  results in creation of deoxygenated blood

Gas Trans ort - O2

y The process by which oxygen is absorbed in the lungs

by the hemoglobin in circulating deoxygenated red cells and carried to the peripheral tissues. The process is made possible because hemoglobin has the ability to combine with oxygen present at a high concentration, such as in the lungs, and to release this oxygen when the concentration is low, such as in the peripheral tissues. y Oxygen does not dissolve easily in water so only about 1.5% of inhaled 02 is dissolved in blood plasma which is mostly water. About 98.5% of blood 02 is bound to hemoglobin in red blood cell.

Gas Trans ort - O2

y The important principle to remember is that oxygen is

needed by the cell and that carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product of the cell. Carbon dioxide must be expelled from the cells and the body. y The lungs serve to exchange the two gases in the blood. Oxygen enters the blood from the lungs and carbon dioxide is expelled out of the blood into the lungs. The blood serves to transport both gases. Oxygen is carried to the cells. Carbon dioxide is carried away from the cells.

Gas Trans ort - O2

 During external respiration O2 diffuses across respiratory membrane into blood plasma  The majority of O2 (98.5%) then immediately diffuses into RBCs & binds (loosely) to the iron (Fe+3) in hemoglobin for transport  only 1.5% is transported freely dissolved within plasma

Gas Trans ort

O2

 During internal respiration CO2 diffuses from interstitial fluid into plasma  Only 7% of CO2 remains in plasma for transport, the rest diffuses into RBCs  Within RBCs 23% binds to the globin proteins of hemoglobin (Hb) ( carbaminohemoglobin )  Most (70%) of CO2 gets converted within RBCs to bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (carbonic acid) HCO3- + H+ HCO3- diffuses out to plasma (as Cl- diffuses in); the H+ attach to Hb to maintain normal plasma pH (so plasma does not become too acidic)

Control of Res iration

y The 2 most important control centers are in the

medulla and are called the inspiratory and expiratory centers. y Breathing can be voluntary to a point, however CO2 levels are much more powerful in controlling respiration than conscious control. Ex. breath holding and hyperventilation. y Activities of respiratory centers modified by sensory information from mechanoreceptors
y Stretch receptors y Pressure (baro)receptors y Chemoreceptors

Control of Resoccurs through the activity of the iration Unconscious control of breathing
respiratory centers of the brain
 Medulla oblongata Rhythmicity center controls basic pattern of breathing; inhale 2 seconds, exhale 3 seconds  Pons has 2 centers (apneustic & pneumotaxic centers) that can unconsciously modify the rate & depth of respiration

Respiratory centers can be influenced by mechanoreceptors (i.e. stretch receptors in lungs) & chemoreceptors (sensitive to arterial pH, CO2 & O2 levels) in the body, as well as by higher brain centers

Grou I
Leader: Members: Arroyo, Alyssa Marie Dela Cruz, Sherlyn Flores, Jonah Liza Bercero, Bernardino De Ocampo, Myra