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Credits
I would like to thank Dr. Hassaan Khalique for the material covered in this lecture.
Application Layer
New applications congestion and flow control Addressing and routing Media access Bit error and interface
Propagation Modes
Ground Wave Propagation -- Below 2 MHz -- Example AM Sky Wave Propagation -- 2 to 30 MHz -- refracted due ionosphere LOS Propagation -- Above 30 MHz -- transmitter and receiver must of each other
LOS Transmission
The signal that is received is different from the signal that is transmitted due to various transmission impairments. ----Attenuation (strength of signal falls off) Free space loss Noise Multipath
Transmitter
Receiver
Transmitter
Receiver
Transmitter
Receiver
Transmitter
Effective Ae Area h= Total A Physical Antenna efficiency typically varies from 40%-80%Area for different antenna
designs
Physical Area
Transmitter
Receiver
Physical Area
Transmitter Receiver
PR =
PT LP
Most antennas are not ideally isotropic and have a gain or directivity that is a function of:
PT PR = Lp
For directional (non-isotropic) antennas, the above equation can be rewritten as
3d be B am w
PT PR = GT GR Lp
id th
Friss Equation
PT PR = GT GR Lp
The decibel notation of the Friss equation is:
Link Budget
id th
Noise
Unwanted signal that is inserted somewhere between transmission. In digital communication, the ratio of the signal energy per bit per noise spectral density ratio is considered.
Eb No
STb No
Where S is the signal power and T is the time required to send one bit.
Reflection: in which radio waves are reflected from various surfaces Diffraction: in which waves go around obstructing objects
Reflection
A wireless signal may reach the receiver from multiple paths due to reflections from nearby objects This phenomenon is referred to as multipath propagation
Reflection
Multipath signals interfere with each other This interference can be constructive or destructive depending on whether the multiple signals are synchronized or desynchronized with each other
Constructive interference
Reflection
Multipath signals interfere with each other This interference can be constructive or destructive depending on whether the multiple signals are synchronized or de-synchronized with each other
Destructive interference
Due to the interference caused by multipath signals, the receive signal power of an antenna can be quite different from what is observed in the (ideal) free-space propagation model As a first step, we only consider reflections from the earths surface
Moreover, we assume a flat (or plane) earth surface and ignore the affect of the earths curvature on propagation This model is valid for distances of less than tens of kilometers This model is also called the two-ray propagation model
h
T
h
R
PT PR = GT GR Lp
So we essentially need to find the path loss Lp for the two-ray propagation environment
h
T
h R
R
h
T
h R
R
Antenna heights: Higher the antennas, greater the received power Distance between the transmit and receive antennas: inverse fourth power decrease; attenuation is much faster than in free-space
h
T
h R
R
Diffraction
Diffraction or shadowing is the bending of a radio wave around obstructions This bending allows radio waves to reach locations when there is no line-of-sight While the signal strength decreases as one moves more and more towards the obstruction (shadow), there is still enough power in the diffracted signal that it can be decoded at the receiver
where R is the difference in distance between the direct and diffracted waves
R Q
2 h
d
2
d
1
D R =| T QR | - | T OR |
R Q
2 h
d
2
d
1
R Q
2 h
d
2
d
1
Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter characterizes the phase difference between the LoS and a diffracted path
R
2 h
Q O
d
2
d
1
R
First Fresnel Zone Second Fresnel Zone Fresnel Third Zone
O T
R
First Fresnel Zone
O T
Diffraction: Losses
For an obstruction of height h, the Fresnel-Kirchhoff parameter is given by
The height h (and ) is positive if the obstruction extends above the LoS and negative if it does not
h=0, =0
obstructio n
Diffraction: Losses
For an obstruction of height h, the Fresnel-Kirchhoff parameter is given by
The height h (and ) is positive if the obstruction extends above the LoS and negative if it does not
Diffraction: Losses
For an obstruction of height h, the Fresnel-Kirchhoff parameter is given by
The height h (and ) is positive if the obstruction extends above the LoS and negative if it does not
obstructio n
h positive positive
0.6r1
Diffraction: Losses
Note that for fixed obstruction and transmitter, approaches infinity as d2 (distance of the obstruction from the receiver) approaches zero Thus the loss becomes infinitely large as the receiver moves more and more into the shadow of the obstruction
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations
57
Effects of Mobility
Fading - Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals: Different types (slow, fast) Different models (Rayleigh model, Rician model)
Doppler shift Change in signal frequency and amplitude when the transmitter and receiver (or both) are moving towards or away from each other.
Fading
Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals
Fading
Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals
Constructive interference
Fading
Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals
Destructive interference
Fading
Image courtesy of Prof. Rappaports online lecture notes, Copyright Pearson Education Inc.
Fading
We will study three models of Fading:
Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading assumes that N reflected paths are received at the receiver Rayleigh fading characterizes the amplitude of the received multipath signal The total energy of the received signal is:
Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading assumes that N reflected paths are received at the receiver Rayleigh fading characterizes the amplitude of the received multipath signal If we assume that all reflected paths have the same energy, En, the total energy of the received signal is
Rician Fading
A drawback of the Rayleigh Fading model is that it assumes that there is no dominant path In many practical situations, there is a Line of Sight (LoS) path that has higher energy than other (reflected and diffracted) signals Rician fading incorporate the presence of a dominant path as:
Rician Fading
Rician fading incorporate the presence of a dominant path as:
Doppler Shift
Doppler shift refers to the change in signal frequency and amplitude when the transmitter and receiver (or both) are moving towards or away from each other The two main phenomena that induce Doppler shift are mobility and propagation delay Received frequency in this case is.
F = Fc + Fd
Where Fd is Fd =
Ts >> Delay spread (non frequency selective) Ts << Delay spread (frequency selective)
Summary
Physical Layer has highly special characteristics In nutshell, issues exist in all layers due to distribution and dynamics.
Paper Reading
J. Elson, D. Estrin, Wireless Sensor Networks: A bridge to the Physical World. In Wireless Sensor Networks, Kluwer, 2004. C. Bettstetter, On the minimum node degree and connectivity of a wireless multihop network, in Proc. 3rd ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking & Computing, 2002, pp. 8091.