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Overview of Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) & Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) Physical Layer

Dr. Adnan K. Kiani CSE- 822 26th, July 2011

Credits
I would like to thank Dr. Hassaan Khalique for the material covered in this lecture.

Physical Layer- OSI reference Model

Application Layer
New applications congestion and flow control Addressing and routing Media access Bit error and interface

Transport Layer Network Layer Link Layer Physical Layer

Physical Layer spectrum


Basics of Physical layer both for MANETS and WSNs are the same. Any form of communication that does not require the transmitter and receiver to be in physical contact Electromagnetic wave propagated through free-space - Radar, RF, Microwave, IR, Optical Half-duplex: two-way communication but not simultaneous (e.g., pushto-talk radios) Full-duplex: Two-way communication

Physical Layer- Signal Propagation Ranges


Straight line propagation Transmission Ranges - communication possible - low error rate Detection Range - detection possible - no communication Interference Range - no signal detection - signal part of background noise

Propagation Modes

Ground Wave Propagation -- Below 2 MHz -- Example AM Sky Wave Propagation -- 2 to 30 MHz -- refracted due ionosphere LOS Propagation -- Above 30 MHz -- transmitter and receiver must of each other

be with effective LOS

LOS Transmission
The signal that is received is different from the signal that is transmitted due to various transmission impairments. ----Attenuation (strength of signal falls off) Free space loss Noise Multipath

Physical Layer- Signal Propagation


In general, different versions of a radio signal arrive a receiver due to reflections from objects between the transmitter and the receiver For the moment, we will not consider propagation effects due to these multiple signal Instead, we will first model propagation effects for a free-space environment in which the wireless transmitter and receiver have only one Line of Sight (LoS) path between them

Free-Space Propagation: Isotropic Antenna


We first consider the simple case of an isotropic antenna that transmits equal power in all directions If the isotropic transmitter emits a radio signal with power PT watts, what is the power received by the receivers antenna? In other words, what parameters impact received signal power?

Transmitter

Receiver

Free-Space Propagation: Isotropic Antenna


For an isotropic antenna with power PT, what parameters impact received signal power? Received power should be a function of two parameters:
Power Flux Density: How much of the total emitted power is flowing in the receivers direction? Receivers Antenna Orientation: What is the size and orientation of the receiver antenna with respect to the transmitters transmission sphere?

Transmitter

Receiver

Free-Space Propagation: Isotropic Antenna


Transmitters power flux density is simply the amount of power per unit area appearing on the surface of the transmission sphere The area of the transmission sphere is: 4R2

where R is the transmission radius of the transmitter


Power flux density in a unit area is then:

Transmitter

Receiver

Free-Space Propagation: Isotropic Antenna


Due to a receiver antennas size and orientation towards the transmitter, it cannot absorb electromagnetic waves in its physical area In effect, the receivers antenna absorbs radio waves in an effective area Ae m2 Thus the power at the receiver is:

Physical Area Receiver

Transmitter

Free-Space Propagation: Isotropic Antenna


If the receive antennas physical area is A m2 , then Antenna efficiency is defined as

Effective Ae Area h= Total A Physical Antenna efficiency typically varies from 40%-80%Area for different antenna
designs

Physical Area

Transmitter

Receiver

Free-Space Propagation: Isotropic Antenna

Effective area of an isotropic antenna is Therefore its received power is:

Physical Area
Transmitter Receiver

Free-Space Propagation: Free space Loss

Hence the free space loss is :

PR =

PT LP

Free-Space Propagation: Directional Antenna

Most antennas are not ideally isotropic and have a gain or directivity that is a function of:

Azimuth angle of the antenna, Elevation angle of the antenna,

Free-Space Propagation: Directional Antenna


The directivity of the antenna typically has a parabolic shape

Main lobe Side lobes Transmit ter

Free-Space Propagation: Directional Antenna


Transmit side antenna gain is defined as:

power flux density in direction ( q, j ) GT = power flux density of an isotropic antenna

Main lobe Side lobes Transmit ter

Free-Space Propagation: Directional Antenna


Receive side antenna gain is defined as:

Main lobe Side lobes Transmit ter

Free-Space Propagation: Directional Antenna


The principle of reciprocity in electromagnetic field theory states that the transmit and receive side gains of an antenna are the same

Main lobe Side lobes Transmit ter

Free-Space Propagation: Friss Equation


Recall that the receive power of an isotropic is given by:

PT PR = Lp
For directional (non-isotropic) antennas, the above equation can be rewritten as

3d be B am w

PT PR = GT GR Lp
id th

Friss Equation

Free-Space Propagation: Link Budget Equation

PT PR = GT GR Lp
The decibel notation of the Friss equation is:

PR ( dB) = PT ( dB) + GT ( dB) + GR ( dB) - LP ( dB)


3d be B am w

Link Budget
id th

Noise
Unwanted signal that is inserted somewhere between transmission. In digital communication, the ratio of the signal energy per bit per noise spectral density ratio is considered.

Eb No

STb No

Where S is the signal power and T is the time required to send one bit.

Terrestrial Propagation: Physical Models


In most wireless communication scenarios, terrestrial environment (buildings, terrain, vegetation, etc.) block line-of-sight communication In this case, radio waves undergo two types of phenomena:

Reflection: in which radio waves are reflected from various surfaces Diffraction: in which waves go around obstructing objects

Reflection
A wireless signal may reach the receiver from multiple paths due to reflections from nearby objects This phenomenon is referred to as multipath propagation

Reflection
Multipath signals interfere with each other This interference can be constructive or destructive depending on whether the multiple signals are synchronized or desynchronized with each other

Constructive interference

Reflection
Multipath signals interfere with each other This interference can be constructive or destructive depending on whether the multiple signals are synchronized or de-synchronized with each other

Destructive interference

Reflection: Plane-Earth Model

Due to the interference caused by multipath signals, the receive signal power of an antenna can be quite different from what is observed in the (ideal) free-space propagation model As a first step, we only consider reflections from the earths surface

Reflection: Plane-Earth Model

Moreover, we assume a flat (or plane) earth surface and ignore the affect of the earths curvature on propagation This model is valid for distances of less than tens of kilometers This model is also called the two-ray propagation model

h
T

h
R

Reflection: Plane-Earth Model


We want to find the power at the receive antenna

Recall that the receiver power for a directional antenna is

PT PR = GT GR Lp
So we essentially need to find the path loss Lp for the two-ray propagation environment

h
T

h R
R

Reflection: Plane-Earth Model


The path loss term for two-ray propagation is

Thus the receive power for the plane-earth model is

h
T

h R
R

Reflection: Plane-Earth Model

The receive power is a function of:

Antenna heights: Higher the antennas, greater the received power Distance between the transmit and receive antennas: inverse fourth power decrease; attenuation is much faster than in free-space
h
T

h R
R

Diffraction
Diffraction or shadowing is the bending of a radio wave around obstructions This bending allows radio waves to reach locations when there is no line-of-sight While the signal strength decreases as one moves more and more towards the obstruction (shadow), there is still enough power in the diffracted signal that it can be decoded at the receiver

Diffraction: Phase Difference


We want to quantify the phase difference that the diffracted wave will experience We know that the phase difference is given by:

where R is the difference in distance between the direct and diffracted waves

Diffraction: Phase Difference


To compute R, let us consider propagating from point T to R An obstruction is blocking the LoS path

The obstruction has a circular radius, h

R Q
2 h

d
2

d
1

Diffraction: Phase Difference


Any wave propagating through TQR is traveling more distance that TOR

D R =| T QR | - | T OR |

R Q
2 h

d
2

d
1

Diffraction: Phase Difference

R Q
2 h

d
2

d
1

Diffraction: Phase Difference

Diffraction: Phase Difference

We define the Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter as:

Diffraction: Phase Difference

Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter characterizes the phase difference between the LoS and a diffracted path

R
2 h

Q O
d
2

d
1

Diffraction: Fresnel Zones

R
First Fresnel Zone Second Fresnel Zone Fresnel Third Zone

O T

Diffraction: Fresnel Zones


Fresnel zones can be thought of as containing the propagated energy of the wave A general rule of thumb is that: We must keep the first Fresnel zone free of obstructions to obtain transmission under free-space conditions

R
First Fresnel Zone

O T

Second Fresnel Zone Third Fresnel Zone

Diffraction: Fresnel Zones


Any obstructions which do not enter the 1st fresnel zone have little effect on the signal A clearance of at least 0.6r1 (r1: radius of first Fresnel zone) is ensured in practical microwave links

Forbidden Region r1 0.6r1

First Fresnel Zone

Diffraction: Losses
For an obstruction of height h, the Fresnel-Kirchhoff parameter is given by

The height h (and ) is positive if the obstruction extends above the LoS and negative if it does not

h=0, =0

obstructio n

Diffraction: Losses
For an obstruction of height h, the Fresnel-Kirchhoff parameter is given by

The height h (and ) is positive if the obstruction extends above the LoS and negative if it does not

h negative negative obstruction

Diffraction: Losses
For an obstruction of height h, the Fresnel-Kirchhoff parameter is given by

The height h (and ) is positive if the obstruction extends above the LoS and negative if it does not

obstructio n

h positive positive

Diffraction: Losses on a Knife-Edge Obstruction

0.6r1

Diffraction: Losses

Note that for fixed obstruction and transmitter, approaches infinity as d2 (distance of the obstruction from the receiver) approaches zero Thus the loss becomes infinitely large as the receiver moves more and more into the shadow of the obstruction

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Slide Credits :Mr Hassan Aqeel

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Slide Credits :Mr Hassan Aqeel

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Slide Credits :Mr Hassan Aqeel

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Slide Credits :Mr Hassan Aqeel

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Slide Credits :Mr Hassan Aqeel

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Slide Credits :Mr Hassan Aqeel

Diffraction: Losses
The radius of the fresnel zone circles is maximum when were midway between transmitter and receiver and decreases if we move towards transmitter or receiver Consider the example of the first fresnel zone circle at different locations

Physical Layer Effects of Mobility


Channel characteristics change over time and location: signal paths change distance to sender changes obstacles position changes

57

Effects of Mobility

Fading - Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals: Different types (slow, fast) Different models (Rayleigh model, Rician model)

Doppler shift Change in signal frequency and amplitude when the transmitter and receiver (or both) are moving towards or away from each other.

Fading
Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals

Fading
Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals

Constructive interference

Fading
Multipath fading occurs as a mobile transmitter or receiver undergoes constructive and destructive interference from multipath signals

Destructive interference

Fading

Fading: Slow and Fast Fading

Image courtesy of Prof. Rappaports online lecture notes, Copyright Pearson Education Inc.

Fading
We will study three models of Fading:

Rayleigh Fading Rician Fading Doppler

Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading assumes that N reflected paths are received at the receiver Rayleigh fading characterizes the amplitude of the received multipath signal The total energy of the received signal is:

Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading assumes that N reflected paths are received at the receiver Rayleigh fading characterizes the amplitude of the received multipath signal If we assume that all reflected paths have the same energy, En, the total energy of the received signal is

Rician Fading
A drawback of the Rayleigh Fading model is that it assumes that there is no dominant path In many practical situations, there is a Line of Sight (LoS) path that has higher energy than other (reflected and diffracted) signals Rician fading incorporate the presence of a dominant path as:

Energy of direct path

Cumulative energy of reflected paths

Rician Fading
Rician fading incorporate the presence of a dominant path as:

A Rician K-factor is then defined as:

The K-factor characterizes the quality of the LoS path

Doppler Shift
Doppler shift refers to the change in signal frequency and amplitude when the transmitter and receiver (or both) are moving towards or away from each other The two main phenomena that induce Doppler shift are mobility and propagation delay Received frequency in this case is.

F = Fc + Fd
Where Fd is Fd =

Characterization in time and frequency

Ts >> Delay spread (non frequency selective) Ts << Delay spread (frequency selective)

Physical Layer- Modulation


Modulation of digital signals Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): very simple low bandwidth requirements very susceptible to interference Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): needs larger bandwidth

Phase Shift Keying (PSK): more complex robust against interference

Summary

Physical Layer has highly special characteristics In nutshell, issues exist in all layers due to distribution and dynamics.

Paper Reading
J. Elson, D. Estrin, Wireless Sensor Networks: A bridge to the Physical World. In Wireless Sensor Networks, Kluwer, 2004. C. Bettstetter, On the minimum node degree and connectivity of a wireless multihop network, in Proc. 3rd ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking & Computing, 2002, pp. 8091.

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