The Digestive System

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Digestive Process
y Processing of food y Types  Mechanical (physical)
Chew Tear Grind Mash Mix

Chemical
Catabolic reactions Enzymatic hydrolysis

Carbohydrate Protein Lipid

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Digestion
Phases
Ingestion Movement Digestion Absorption Further digestion
3

Digestive System Organization

Gastrointestinal (Gl) tract (Alimentary canal)
Tube within a tube Structures Mouth Oral Cavity Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Duodenum Jejunum Ileum
4

Digestive System Organization

Structures
Cecum Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon Anus

Digestive System Organization

Accessory structures Not in tube path Organs Teeth Tongue Salivary glands Liver Spleen Gall bladder Pancreas
6

LIVER Structure
CYSTIC DUCT COMMON BILE DUCT (has been cut) GALL BLADDER

FALCIFORM LIGAMENT

PANCREAS AND SPLEEN

Duodenum Spleen

Pancreas Plicae circularis

Gall bladder

Spleen
Pancreas Kidney

Plicae circularis

Duodenum

Histology of the Digestive Organs

Basic Histological Layers 1. Mucosa a. Epithelium b. Lamina Propria c. Muscularis Mucosae 2. Submucosa a. Submucosal plexus Plexus of Meissner 3. Muscularis a. Myenteric plexus Plexus of Auerbach 4. Serosa

Anatomy of the Mouth and Throat

11

Anatomy of the Mouth and Throat

12

Anatomy of Mouth Cavity

Human Deciduous and Permanent Teeth

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Anatomy of Deciduous (Milk) Teeth

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Anatomy of Permanent Teeth

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Dorsal Surface of the Tongue

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The Major Salivary Glands

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Salivary Glands
Parotid gland Submandibular

Salivary Glands
Sublingual Submandibular

PHARYN GEAL TONSIL PALATINE TONSIL

Deglutition (swallowing)
Sequence
Voluntary stage
Push food to back of mouth

Pharyngeal stage
Raise
Soft palate Larynx + hyoid Tongue to soft palate

Esophageal stage
Contract pharyngeal muscles Open esophagus Start peristalsis

22

Deglutition (swallowing)
Control
Nerves
Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accessory

Brain stem
Deglutition center
Medulla oblongata Pons

Disorders
Dysphagia Aphagia
23

Esophagus
Usually collapsed (closed) 3 constrictions
Aortic arch Left primary bronchus Diaphragm

Surrounded by
SNS plexus Blood vessels

Functions
Secrete mucous Transport food
24

Peristalsis and Segmentation

25

Stomach
Usually J shaped Left side, anterior to the spleen Mucous membrane
G cells make gastrin Goblet cells make mucous Gastric pit Oxyntic gland Parietal cells Make HCl Chief cells Zymogenic cells
Pepsin Gastric lipase

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ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH

Stomach
Cardiac region Lesser curvature Fundus region

Pyloric region

Greater curvature

Stomach
Pyloric sphincter

Plicae circularis

Rugae Duodenum

Stomach
3 muscle layers
Oblique Circular Longitudinal

Regions
Cardiac sphincter Fundus Antrum (pylorus) Pyloric sphincter

Vascular Inner surface thrown into folds Rugae

Contains enzymes that work best at pH 1-2
30

Stomach
Functions
Mix food Reservoir Start digestion of
Protein Nucleic acids Fats

Absorbs
Alcohol Water Lipophilic acid B 12

Activates some enzymes Destroy some bacteria Makes intrinsic factor B 12 absorption Destroys some bacteria

31

Small Intestine
Extends from pyloric sphincter ileocecal valve Regions
Duodenum Jejenum Ileum

Movements
Segmentation Peristalsis

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Small Intestine
Histology
Intestinal glands Intestinal enzymes Duodenal glands Alkaline mucous Paneth cells Lysozyme Microvilli Lacteals Plica circularis Smooth muscle Lymphatic tissue GALT Vascular
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Small Intestine
Absorbs
80% ingested water Electrolytes Vitamins Minerals Carbonates
Active/facilitated transport Monosaccharides

Lipids
Monoglycerides Fatty acids Micelles Chylomicrons

Proteins
Di-/tripeptides Amino acids

34

Structure of the Villi in the Small Intestine

35

Small Intestine
Secretes digestive enzymes
Peptidases
Amino Di Tri-

Sucrases Maltase Lactase Saccharidases

Di Tri-

Lipase Nucleases
36

Small Intestine
Control Requires pancreatic enzymes & bile to complete digestion

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Large Intestine
Extends from ileocecal valve to anus Regions
Cecum Appendix Colon
Ascending Transverse Descending

Rectum Anal canal

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Anatomy of the Large Intestine

39

Large Intestine
Histology
No villi No permanent circular folds Smooth muscle
Taeniae coli Haustra

Epiploic appendages Otherwise like rest of Gl tract

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Large Intestine
Functions
Mechanical digestion
Haustral churning Peristalsis Reflexes
Gastroileal Gastrocolic

Absorbs
More water Vitamins
B K

Chemical digestion Bacterial digestion

Ferment carbohydrates Protein/amino acid breakdown

Concentrate/eliminate wastes

41

Feces Formation and Defecation

Chyme dehydrated to form feces Feces composition
Water Inorganic salts Epithelial cells Bacteria Byproducts of digestion

Control
Parasympathetic Voluntary

Defecation
Peristalsis pushes feces into rectum Rectal walls stretch
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Liver
Location
R. Hypochondrium Epigastric region

4 Lobes
Left Quadrate Caudate Right

Each lobe has lobules Contains hepatocytes Surround sinusoids Feed into central vein
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Liver
Functions
Makes bile
Detergent emulsifies fats Release promoted by:
Vagus n. CCK Secretin

Contains
Water Bile salts Bile pigments Electrolytes Cholesterol Lecithin
44

Liver
Detoxifies/removes
Drugs Alcohol

Stores
Gycolgen Vitamins (A, D, E, K) Fe and other minerals Cholesterol

Activates vitamin D Fetal RBC production Phagocytosis Metabolizes absorbed food molecules
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids

45

Liver
Dual blood supply
Hepatic portal vein
Direct input from small intestine

Hepatic artery/vein
Direct links to heart

46

The Duodenum and Related Organs

47

The Organs and Positions in the Abdominal Cavity

48

Nervous Control of the GI Tract

Figure 23.4

Secretions of the Stomach

Chyme: ingested food plus stomach secretions Mucus: surface and neck mucous cells Viscous and alkaline Protects from acidic chyme and enzyme pepsin Irritation of stomach mucosa causes greater mucus Intrinsic factor: parietal cells. Binds with vitamin B12 and helps it to be absorbed. B12 necessary for DNA synthesis HCl: parietal cells Kills bacteria Stops carbohydrate digestion by inactivating salivary amylase Denatures proteins Helps convert pepsinogen to pepsin Pepsinogen: chief cells. Packaged in zymogen granules released by exocytosis. Pepsin catalyzes breaking of covalent bonds in proteins. G-cells: secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulates HCl secretion from parietal cells

Hydrochloric Acid Production

1. CO2 and Cl- diffuse from the blood into the stomach cell. 2. CO2 combines with H2O to form H2CO3. 3. H2CO3 dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3-) and H+. 4. H+ combines with Cl- in duct of gastric gland to form HCl-. 5. An ATP pump is necessary to pump the HCl- into the duct since the concentration of HClis about a million times more concentrated in the duct than in the cytosol of the cell.

Release of Gastric Juice

Cephalic Phase
The taste or smell of food, tactile sensations of food in the mouth, or even thoughts of food stimulate the medulla oblongata. Parasympathetic action potentials are carried by the vagus nerves to the stomach. Preganglionic parasympathetic vagus nerve fibers stimulate postganglionic neurons in the enteric plexus of the stomach.

Cephalic Phase
Postganglionic neurons stimulate secretion by parietal and chief cells (HCl and pepsin) and stimulate the secretion of the hormone gastrin. Gastrin is carried through the circulation back to the stomach where it stimulates further secretion of HCl and pepsin.

Gastric Phase
DISTENTION OF THE STOMACH ACTIVATES A PARASYMPATHET IC REFLEX. ACTION POTENTIALS ARE CARRIED BY THE VAGUS NERVES TO THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA. MEDULLA

Intestinal Phase
Chyme in the duodenum with a pH less than 2 or containing lipids inhibits gastric secretions by three mechanisms

1.SENSORY INPUT TO THE MEDULLA FROM THE DUODENUM INHIBITS THE MOTOR INPUT FROM THE MEDULLA TO THE STOMACH. STOPS SECRETION OF PEPSIN AND HCL. 2.LOCAL REFLEXES INHIBIT GASTRIC SECRETION

Regulation of Gastric Emptying

GASTRIC EMPTYING IS REGULATED BY:
THE

NEURAL ENTEROGASTRIC REFLEX HORMONAL (ENTEROGASTRONE) MECHANISMS

THESE MECHANISMS INHIBIT GASTRIC SECRETION AND DUODENAL FILLING CARBOHYDRATE-RICH CHYME QUICKLY MOVES THROUGH THE

GASTRIC EMPTYING IS REGULATED BY:

THE NEURAL ENTEROGASTRIC REFLEX HORMONAL (ENTEROGASTRONE ) MECHANISMS

Figure 23.19

Microscopic Anatomy of the Liver

Functions of the Liver

Bile production: 600-1000 mL/day. Bile salts (bilirubin), cholesterol, fats, fat-soluble hormones, lecithin Neutralizes and dilutes stomach acid Bile salts emulsify fats. Most are reabsorbed in the ileum. Secretin (from the duodenum) stimulates bile secretions, increasing water and bicarbonate ion content of the bile Storage Glycogen, fat, vitamins, copper and iron. Hepatic portal blood comes to liver from small intestine. Nutrient interconversion Amino acids to energy producing compounds Hydroxylation of vitamin D. Vitamin D then travels to kidney where it is hydroxylated again into its active form Detoxification Hepatocytes remove ammonia and convert to urea Phagocytosis Kupffer cells phagocytize worn-out & dying red & white blood cells, some bacteria Synthesis Albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, clotting factors

Bile Release

Pancreas
Pancreas both endocrine and exocrine Head, body and tail Endocrine: pancreatic islets. Produce insulin, glucose, and somatostatin Exocrine: groups acini (grape-like cluster) form lobules separated by septa. Intercalated ducts lead to intralobular ducts lead to interlobular ducts lead to the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic duct joins common bile duct and enters duodenum at the hepatopancreatic ampulla controlled by the hepatopancreatic ampullar sphincter

Pancreatic Secretion

Pancreatic Juice
Aqueous. Produced by columnar epithelium lining smaller ducts. Na+, K+, HCO3-, water. Bicarbonate lowers pH inhibiting pepsin and providing proper pH for enzymes Enzymatic portion: Trypsinogen Chymotrypsinogen Procarboxypeptidase Pancreatic amylase Pancreatic lipases Deoxyribonucleases and ribonucleases Interaction of duodenal and pancreatic enzymes. Enterokinase from the duodenal mucosa and attached to the brush border activates trypsinogen to trypsin. Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin Trypsin activates procarboxypeptidase to carboxypeptidase. Trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase digest proteins: proteolytic. Pancreatic amylase continues digestion of starch Pancreatic lipase digests lipids Deoxyribonucleases & ribonucleases digest DNA & RNA, respectively

Secretions of Large Intestine

Mucus provides protection

Parasympathetic stimulation increases rate of goblet cell secretion

Pumps: bacteria produce acid and the following remove acid from the epithelial cells that line the large intestine

Exchange of bicarbonate ions for chloride ions Exchange of sodium ions for hydrogen ions

Bacterial actions produce gases (flatus) from particular kinds of carbohydrates found in legumes and in artificial sugars like sorbitol Bacteria produce vitamin K which is then absorbed Feces consists of water, undigested food (cellulose), microorganisms, sloughed-off epithelial cells

Digestion, Absorption, Transport

Digestion

Breakdown of food molecules for absorption into circulation

 

Mechanical: breaks large food particles to small Chemical: breaking of covalent bonds by digestive enzymes

Absorption and transport

Molecules are moved out of digestive tract and into circulation for distribution throughout body

Animation Digestion

Bibliography
Bellenir, Karen. Digestive Diseases and Disorders Sourcebook. Michigan: Omnigraphics Inc., 2000. Frost, Helen. The Digestive System. Minnesota: Pebble Books, 2001. Patel, Nalin M. The Doctors Guide to Your Digestive System. Illinois: N.M.P. Publications, 1988. Stille, Darlene R. The Digestive System. New York: Children Press, 1997. Get Healthy Again. Enzymes Key To Digestive System. 2000. http://www.gethealthyagain.com/enzymes.html (4 June 2001)