Electromagnetic Waves

Maxwell eqs in phasor form, Wave equation, uniform plane wave in homogeneous, free space, dielectric, conducting Medium. Polarization: Linear, circular and elliptical polarization. Unpolarized wave, Reflection of plane waves, Normal and oblique incidence. EM power and Poynting vector.

 Before discussing fundamentals of electromagnetic wave theory to be used for communication through antenna, let us review various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum used for different communications

Maxwell equation in phasor form Similarly, Before we find Maxwells equation in phasor form that is most convenient for different related calculations; let us recall these basic equations in integral & differential form with their significance.

With the help of studies of steady electric & magnetic fields, the Maxwells set of equations in differential and integral form are framed which can be directly used to solve the related problem.
Important relations: 1.D = 2.B =
0E, 0H,

(permitivity) (susecptibility) and,

3. law of conservation of charges as

Jds ! 0
s

Maxwells steady field equations

Integral form Point/differential form Law from which equation is derived
1.Faradays law 2.Amperes circuital law 3.Gausss law of electric field 4.Gausss law of magnetic field

v ! 0 EdL ! 0 H dL ! I ( ! Jds ) v ! J ! Vv D ds ! V dv ! 0 Bds ! 0

s v s v s

Than, first two Maxwells steady field equations are modified for time varying fields and a new set of equations is introduced for lossy medium or conducting medium
Integral form Point/differential form

x E d L !  x t s B d s

v v

H d L ! J d s 
s s v

xD ds xt

x !  xt x ! J  xt ! Vv ! 0

D d s ! V
v

dv

B d s ! 0

Maxwells set of equations for non conducting / source less / lossless medium / free space In this case conductivity and resistivity i.e. = 0 and the =0 and v=0. So, Jds = 0 and equations become as
Integral form Point/differential form

xB EdL !  xt ds s xD HdL ! xt ds s

D ds ! 0 B ds ! 0

xB vE !  xt xD vH ! xt D ! 0 B ! 0

Time Periodic Fields and Phasor These are time varying fields where harmonic variation with time is their. These fields can be expressed conveniently in phasor. The phasor is a complex number with real and imaginary parts as
Phasor z ! x  jy , in rectangular form or =re jJ , in polar form x- real part, y- imaginary part, and r- magnitude of z, J - phase of z . r! x  y , J ! tan
2 2 1

j !  1, or j2 ! 1.

y x

If we assume that electric and magnetic fields are varying harmonically with time, than

0e

j[ t

B ! B0 e

j[ t

x j[ t or , ! j[ D 0 e xt xD or , ! j[ D xt

xB j[ t ! j[ B 0 e or , xt xB ! j[ B or , xt

Now, for the calculations in phasor form of these fields, Maxwells equations are required to be modified as per above. First let us consider integral form:

x !  xt x dS xt

dS

H d L ! J d S 
s s

xD dS xt
j[ D d S

Q J ! W E,

! 
s

H d L H d L
H dS

!W

EdS 
s

!  j[ B d S ,
s

Q D ! IE

Q B ! QH

!W

EdS
s s

 j[ I

EdS

E d L

!  j[ Q

o r , H d L ! E d S [W  j [ I ]

H d L
D d S
!

!W  j [ I

EdS
s

The other two Maxwells equations remain same as

V vdv,

B d S

! 0

Similarly, in case of point forms of time varying field, Maxwells equations shall be modified as

xB v E !  !  j[B xt or, v E !  j[QH

xD v H ! J  ! W E  j[D xt or, v H ! W E  j[I E ! (W  j[I )E

Third and forth equations remain same as

D ! Vv

B ! 0

These modified Maxwells equations in phasor form are utilized for solving or calculating various parameters in a problem of harmonically varying fields with time using phasor.

(E,H) phasors are called vector field phasors ( ,J) phasors are called source phasors

For source free fields the equations are narrated as v E !  j[ Q H v H ! j[ I E E ! 0 H ! 0

when we combine source free eqs. of E & H, we write second order differential equations as

2 E  k 2 E ! 0 2 H  k 2 H ! 0, which are called homogeneous vector

Helmholtz's Equations. Here, k is wave number=[ QI

This is also termed as wave equations for dielectrics.

Wave equation So, Now, we understand that Wave is a physical phenomenon that carry energy from one point to another in space. It is a function of space as well as time.

We start with the Maxwells equations in free space i.e. non-conducting medium or loss less medium (with zero conductivity & volume charge density).

xB vE !  xt xD vH ! xt D ! 0 B ! 0

(1)

(2)

(1) may be re ritten as xB vE !  xt x x xB or , ( v E ) !  ( ) xt xt xt xE x2B or , v ! 2 , xt xt xE x2H or , v ! Q0 xt xt 2

(2 ) m ay b e re ritten as xD vH ! xt x x xD ( v H ) ! ( ) xt xt xt xH x2D v ! xt xt 2 xH x2E or , v !I xt xt 2

e take curl o (1) xB v (v E) ! v xt xH 2 or,  E ! Q0 (v ) xt 2 xE 2 or,  E ! Q0I 0 2 xt 2 xE 2 or, E ! Q0I 0 2 xt I

e take curl o (2)

xD v (v H ) ! v xt xE 2 or ,  H ! I 0 (v ) xt x2 H 2 or ,  H ! I 0 Q0 2 xt 2 xH 2 or , H ! I 0 Q0 2 xt

These are also called wave equations for free space.

These t o

ave equations may also be ritten as

x2E x2D 2 2 E ! Q 0I 0 2 , hich may be D ! Q 0I 0 2 xt xt 2 2 x H x B 2 2 H ! Q 0I 0 2 , hich may be B ! Q 0I 0 2 xt xt

In case o harmonically varying ields, since, E ! E0e

2 j[ t

and,

! H 0e

j[ t 2

x E x H j[ t j[ t 2 2  [ E0e  [ H 0e or, and, 2 2 xt xt 2 2 x E x E 2 2  [ E and, [ H or, 2 2 xt xt 2 2 Thus , E !  Q 0 I 0[ E ,

and , H !  Q 0 I 0[ H , or , D !  Q 0 I 0[ D , and , B !  Q 0 I 0[ B
2 2 2 2 2 2

The standard orm o

2 2

ave equation may be rittn as

1xA A! 2 2 v xt here A is any ield, or and v is velocity o v ave. 1 8 ! c ! 3v10 Q0I0

Uniform Plane Wave

y

propagation

E
z

E = Ex(z,t) ax H = Hy(z,t) ay

 Uniform plane wave means

1. Same phase for all points on plane surface 2. Constant amplitude over plane surface , and, 3. E & H are independent of z-direction which is the direction of propagation of the wave.
x x 1 Means , ! ! 0, and , v0 ! c ! ! 3 v 10 8 m / s xx xy Q 0I 0
It m e a n s

xH a n d , xx o r , E x !

xE xE ! , xx xy xH ! ! 0 xy H z ! 0

! 0

 In other words, The assumption of uniformity means that the fields have no dependence on the transverse coordinates x, y and are functions only of z, t in which the propagation of wave is taking place. For the forward moving uniform plane wave the wavelength is the distance by which the phase of the sinusoidal wave changes by 2 radians. Since the propagation factor ejkz accumulates a phase of k radians per meter, we have by definition that k = 2 .

 The wavelength can be expressed via the frequency of the wave in Hertz, f = /2 , as follows:

If the propagation medium is free space, we use the vacuum values of the parameters { , , c, }, that is, { 0, 0, c0, 0}. The free-space wavelength and corresponding wave-number are:

 In a lossless but non-magnetic ( = 0) dielectric with refractive index n = / 0, the speed of light c, wavelength , and characteristic impedance are all reduced by a scale factor n compared to the freespace values, whereas the wave number k is increased by a factor of n. Indeed, using the definitions c = 1/ 0 and = 0/ , we have:

Similarly, wave equations can be derived for lossy medium i.e. conducting medium from Maxwells equations.
We know the set of Maxwell's Equations as xB v E !  a (1) xt xD v H ! J  a (2) xt D ! Vv B ! 0 If medium is homogeneous, I ,Q ,and remains constant.

From Eq.(1), we get

From Eq.(2), we get xD v H=J+ , or xt x xJ x xD (v H ) !  ( ) xt xt xt xt xH xE x2 E v !W  I ( 2 ) a (4) xt xt xt

xB v E=, or xt x x xB ( v E) !  ( ), or xt xt xt xE x2H v !  Q0 a (3) 2 xt xt

xB I e take curl o q. 1, v ( v E ) !  v xt 2 xH xE x E 2 ) !  Q 0 [W or ,  E !  Q 0 ( v I 2 ] xt xt xt x2E xE 2 or ,  E !  Q 0I 2  Q 0W xt xt x2E xE 2 or E ! QI 2  QW xt xt

x E xE  QW or E ! QI 2 xt xt nd, Similarly, for H, we get

2

x H xH H ! QI  QW 2 xt xt
2

This is also called wave equation for conductors.

Concept of good conductor and good dielectric wrt em wave propagation The material may be good conductor for certain frequency and also good dielectric for the other frequency.
The displacement current density is given as

xD xE Jd ! !I ! j[I E xt xt
The conduction current density is given as

Jc WE W W Jc ! W E, or, ! ! } Jd j[I E j[I [I

No , Good conductor means W ? 1, or , W ? [I , [I and ,Good dielectric means W = 1, or , W ?< [I . [I Dissipation factor of dielectric material is given as W Df ! [I When Df is small for a dielectric material, equals the o er factor.

Wave propagation in good dielectrics Parameters like, attenuation constant, phase shift constant, velocity of propagation and intrinsic impedance define the wave propagation in good dielectric material.
W e kno th a t, A tte n u a tio n C o n s ta n t

W2  1) QI ( 1 2 2 [ I E =[ 2 W = 1, o r W = [ I fo r d ie le c tric s [I o , e x p a n s io n o f b in o m ia l s e rie s g iv e s
1

W2 !1 2 2 [ I

W2 2[ 2I

So , E = [ or , E = [

W2  1) QI (1  2 2 2[ I 2 IQW ![ 2 2 4[ I Q I
2

QW W ! 2 4[ I 2

Q I

W or , E = 2

Phase Shift

onstant is given as

W2 W2 QI (1  2 2 +1) QI (1  +1) 2 2 [ I 2[ I ![ F =[ 2 2 W QI (2  ) 2 2 W2 2[ I ![ ! [ QI (1  ) 2 2 2 4[ I W2 or , F = [ QI (1  ) 2 2 8[ I
2

[ Velocity of propagation, v ! ! F W2 1 So, v ! (1  2 2 ) 8[ I QI

[ W [ QI (1  2 2 ) 8[ I
2

E j[Q Intrinsic Impedance, L = ! W  j[I H On rearranging the terms, we get Q W (1  j ) L= 2[I I

Wave propagation in good conductor In this case the parameters like , , , and v characterizes the wave propagation.
[I K ! [ QI  j[QW ! j[QW 1  j W [I The second term may be neglected as = 1. W So, K ! j[QW ! [QW 450
2

Also, K !

 j F ! [QW 450

[ QW or , E ! ! 2 T he velocity of propagation is given as

v!

2[ QI

T he Intrinsic Im pedance is given as

L=

[Q W

Antenna Polarization
Antenna Polarization simply means polarization of its radiated wave. The polarization of electromagnetic wave is the direction of its electric field.

When direction of electric field with time varies as a straight line, called linear Polarization. Within the linear polarization; horizontal, vertical and -polarizations are the subdivisions i.e. Ey=0, Ex=0, =tan-1(Ey/Ex)

 When direction of electric field vector with time forms a ellipse, called elliptically polarized wave.

When direction of electric field with time varies as if it is moving on the circumference of circle, called circularly polarized wave.

 So, the polarization of an electromagnetic wave is defined as the orientation of the which is electric field vector perpendicular to both the direction of travel and the magnetic field vector. The polarization is described by the geometric figure traced by the electric field vector upon a stationary plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, as the wave travels through that plane.

Polarization ellips

The superposition of two plane-wave components results in an elliptically polarized wave. The polarization ellipse is defined by its axial ratio N/M (ellipticity), tilt angle and sense of rotation.

Un-polarized wave/radiations
Any electromagnetic wave can be decomposed into two orthogonal polarized components. For example, the transverse electric field can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components, or horizontal and vertical linear polarizations. Any radio wave can also be decomposed into left- and right-circular polarizations.

 If the wave is essentially random (noise generated by blackbody radiation for example), the two orthogonal components will vary rapidly in intensity but have equal powers when averaged over long times. Such radiation is called un-polarized. Blackbody radiation is un-polarized. Most radio astronomical sources are unpolarized or nearly so.

Boundary conditions with conducting and dielectric medium Here , we have to observe that, how electromagnetic wave behaves, at boundary of two medium. We sub categories incidence of electromagnetic wave on boundary as 1. normal incidence, and 2. oblique incidence.

For normal incidence, at boundaries, the wave gets reflected and transmitted both. If it is a perfect conductor, no energy gets transmitted and total reflection take place at boundary. The amplitudes of incident & reflected electric field strength are equal with opposite phase on reflection. Thus the standing wave is formed. Magnetic fields are also equal at the boundary with standing wave only.

 If it is a perfect dielectric material, no loss/ absorption of energy takes place. We find reflection coefficient + as the ratio of reflected wave to the incident wave. We also define transmission T coefficient as the ratio of transmitted wave to the incident wave.

Er L2 L1 Hr L1 L2 +E ! , or, +E ! and, +H ! , or, +H ! Ei L2 L1 Hi L1 L2

Et Ht 2L2 2L1 , and , TH ! TE ! ! ! Ei L1  L2 H i L1  L2

For oblique incidence of electromagnetic wave on boundary, the reflection and transmission depends on type of polarization of the wave and medium of the boundary. When electric field of the wave is parallel to the plane of incidence, called parallel or vertical polarization.

When electric field of wave is perpendicular to the plane of incidence called perpendicular or horizontal polarization. Accordingly, the reflection coefficient and transmission coefficient may be calculated for conductors and dielectrics.

Poyinting vector and poyinting theorem The movement of electromagnetic wave means flow of energy across the surface involved, Poyinting vector is the cross product of E & H at a point. It is a measure of rate of flow of energy per unit areas at that point. P=ExH

Poyinting vector and poyinting theorem This is a relation of rate of energy transfer with amplitude of electric & magnetic intensities which is termed as Poyinting Theorem.
we start with a axwell s equation xD vH ! J  xt xD or , J ! v H  xt

m ultiplying both sides by E xD ] E J ! [ E ( v H )]  [ E xt Q ( A v B ) ! B ( v A )  A ( v B ), D ! I E xE @ E J ! [ H ( v E )  ( E v H )]  [ E I ] xt xB xE ! H ( )  (E v H )  I E xt xt Q B ! QH xH xE IE  (E v H ) E J ! Q H xt xt 2 2 x QH x IE ! ( ) ( )  (E v H ) xt xt 2 2

IE x QH  EJ !  ( )  ( E v H ) xt 2 2 Taking volume intergal of both sides IE x QH E Jdv !  xt ( 2  2 )dv  ( E v H )dv v v On rearranging the equation x QH IE ( E v H )dv !  xt ( 2  2 )dv  E Jdv v v v
2 2 2 2

U sin g

to k e s th eo rem to co n vert L

fro m

vo lu m e to su rface in teg ral

x  E v H d s ! ! s xt
s

QH ( 2 v

IE2 )dv   2

E Jd v
v

 E v H d s is p o w er i.e.
p o w er is in w ard .
2

= E x , an d n eg ative sig n m ean s

x xt

QH ( 2 v

IE2 ) d v is th e en erg y sto red in  2

tim e varyin g field s. T h is term in d icate th e rate o f ch an g e o f electric an d m ag n etic field s sto red en erg y w ith tim e.

E Jd v , term
v

in d icate th e en erg y d issip ated in th e

g iven vo lu m e.