RESEARCH DESIGN

Research Design

Research Design is a blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data

Research Design can be divided in to

1. 2. 3. 4.

Sampling design-deals with the method of selecting items for the study Observational design-relates to the conditions under which the observations are made. Statistical design-deals with how information and data are to be analysed. Operational design-deals with techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

Important concepts relating to Research Design

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Variable Control Confounded relationship Experimental and Non-Experimental hypothesis testing research Experimental and Control Groups Treatment and Experiment

The definition of a variable: A phenomenon or a situation that can take different quantitative values and can be measured. A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another.
Continuous variable Phenomena which can take quantitatively different values, even decimals. Eg: Age Non-Continuous variable or Discrete Variable Only expressed in integers. Eg: No. of Men

The difference between a concept and a variable

 Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their

meaning varies markedly from individual to individual. It cannot be measured

 Variable can be subjected to measurement by subjective

/objective units of measurement. e.g.- Satisfation ,Domestic violence  Concepts___>Indicators_____>Variables indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the concept which can then be converted into variables.

Types of variables: 1. Independent variables the cause supposed to be responsible for the bringing about change in a phenomenon or situation. 2. Dependent variables the outcome of change/effect brought about by change in the independent variable Eg: Height depends on age/individual sex(Height DV)

3. Extraneous variable IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study but affects DV
1.Intervening variable a variable whose existence is inferred but cannot be manipulated or controlled 2.Moderator variable a variable that may or may not be controlled but has an effect on the research situation/phenomenon.

For example: Does a commitment to ethics among media practitioners depend on their educational or professional training? 1. Independent variable: educational attainment of journalist. 2. Dependent variables: ethical behavior, knowledge of Code of Ethics 3. Intervening variable: newsroom policies 4. Moderator variables: civil status, age, years of work experience

2. Control
Controlled- The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, the study is set up in such a way that it minimizes the effect of extraneous variable


This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.

3. Confounded Relationship
 When the DV is not free from the influence of

EV, the relationship between DV and IV is said to be confounded by an EV

4.Experimental and Non-Experimental hypothesis testing research

 Research in which IV is manipulated is

termed as hypothesis testing research

 Research in which IV is not manipulated is

termed as Non-Experimental hypothesis testing research

5. Experimental and Control Groups

 In an Experimental hypothesis testing

research, when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is called control group but when exposed to special conditions, it is called experimental group.

6.Treatment and Experiment

 Treatment The different conditions under

which experimental and control groups are put is called a treatment

 Experiment


The process of statistical testing of hypothesis is called experiment

The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an Experiment. E.g.:we can conduct an Experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug.

Types of Research

TYPES OF RESEARCH Descriptive vs Analytical Research

1. Descriptive Research is a fact finding investigation which is aimed at describing the characteristics of an individual, situation or a group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists at present. present. Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and answering questions through asking questions from individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or interviews) or by observation (Survey type research). research).

Descriptive Research (Example)

 Describe the characteristics of relevant groups

Internet

users Who buys our products? Where do they buy it?

Analytical/Explanatory
2. Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or information already available. (Cause-Effect)

Applied vs Fundamental Research

Applied Research or Action Research is carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision a society or business faces.
   

Goal: To improve human condition (i.e., improve the world) (e.g., how to cure cancers?) Driven by practical needs High impact examples: computers, transistors, vaccinations, The boundary is vague; distinction isnt important

 
 

Fundamental Research which is also known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.
Goal: Expand mans knowledge (e.g., which genes control social behavior of human beings? ) Often driven by curiosity (but not always) High impact examples: relativity theory, DNA,

Quantitative vs Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research Research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. To collect and analyze data to explain, predict, collect or control phenomena of interest 1. Describe current conditions 2. Investigate relationships 3. Study causes and effects

 Basic designs
   

Descriptive Correlational Causal-comparative Experimental

Obj. 3.7

1.Descriptive  Purpose to describe the current status of a variable of interest to the researcher  Example-Peter O. Peretti and Kris G. Majecen (1992) interviewed 58 elderly individuals, from 68 to 87 years of age, using a structured interview to investigate the variables that affect emotional abuse among the elderly.  As a result of the interviews, they found 9 variables are common to elderly abuse, including lack of affection, threats of violence and confinement.
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

2. Correlational

Purpose to ascertain the extent to which two or more variables are statistically related
 To ascertain the impact of training on

employee retention.  To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

3.CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE/EX-POST FACTO STUDIES  Purpose to explore relationships among variables that cannot be actively manipulated or controlled by the researcher

 Conducted to identify cause-and-effect

relationships

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

4.Experimental  Purpose to establish cause and effect relationships between variables  The important characteristics are that there is greater control over the research environment and the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls unrelated variables  Some of the examples of an independent variables could be: temperature, pressure, chemical concentration, type of material and conductivity.

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Pure Qualitative Research is a nonnonquantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality/kind of a particular phenomenon. Help taken from experimental psychologists.
General purpose


To probe deeply into the research setting to obtain indepth understandings about the way things are, why they are like that, and how participants perceive them

 Assumptions of the researcher  All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or context ,Different people and groups often have different perspectives and contexts, so there are many different meanings in the world
Obj. 3.8 & 5.1

Conceptual vs. Empirical Research /Experimental

Conceptual Research is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or ideas to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical Research is a data based research which depends on experience or observation alone. It is a data based research with verifiable conclusions. The important characteristics are that there is greater control over the research environment and the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls unrelated variables.

Some other types of research..

OneOne-time Research Research confined to a single time period. Longitudinal Research Research carried on over several time periods. Diagnostic Research It is also called clinical research which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions for it. Exploratory Research It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the problem. Hence it is also known as formulative research.

Historical Research The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes or effects of past occurrences. This may help in occurrences. explaining present events and anticipating future events. events. The data are not gathered by administering instruments to individuals, but by collecting them from original documents or by interviewing the eyeeyewitnesses (primary source of information). information).

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research
 Qualitative Research is a non-quantitative type of non-

analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality/kind of a particular phenomenon

 Qualitative Researchinvolves finding out what

people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel. This kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers

Example: Smoking and lung cancer

 Research has established the association b/t

smoking and lung cancer  Qualitative methodology helps to explain:

  

The power of tobacco companies and advertising Reasons why people continue to smoke despite the evidence Social meaning of smoking (eg among women and the youth)

Qualitative Research as a Process

 Theoretical Approach  Method  Analysis

Theoretical Approach Deductive

 Deductive Theoretical Approach  Seek to use existing theory to shape the

approach which you adopt to the qualitative research process and to aspects of data analysis

Inductive Approach
 Inductive Theoretical Approach  Seek to build up a theory which is adequately

grounded in a number of relevant cases. Referred to as Interpretative and Grounded Theory

Method/Types of qualitative research

 The case study  Ethnography  Grounded theory  Phenomenology

1. The Case Study

 Interest is in an individual case of a person or

an event, a group, or an institution rather than in a method of inquiry  Data may be quantitative or qualitative  Focus on what can be learned from the individual case


Eg: Dhirubhai Ambani, Wipro

2. Ethnography
 Ethno = people  Graphy = describing something  Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close

field observation of socio-cultural phenomena. Role of the observer  Complete observer  Complete participant (identity not revealed)  Observer as participant (spectator)  Participant as observer (reveal your purpose and gain trust of the group)

For example, a business can use ethnographers and their ethnographies to better understand the wants and needs of a customer base Ethnography at Intel initially focused on new markets. The company had provided products only for the workplace, but in 1995 managers wondered whether users at home would become a distinct market. Ethnographic research showed so much potential that Intel set up a business unit to concentrate on processors and platforms for home use.

3. Grounded Theory
 Theory is developed inductively from

data that is systematically collected and analysed by a participant-observer.

 grounded theory research in business and

management is used to develop new concepts and theories of business-related phenomena, innovation etc.

4. Phenomenology
 Rooted in philosophy and describes the structures of

experience as they present themselves to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or assumptions from other disciplines  Central question: what is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person/group of people?  Researching entrepreneurship through phenomenological inquiry: philosophical and methodological issues

Analysis of Qualitative Data: An Approach

 Categorisation  Unitising data  Recognising relationships and developing the

categories you are using to facilitate this  Developing and testing hypotheses to reach conclusion

Qualitative v.'s Quantitative

Type o questions ample ize In o. er respondent dmin Type o nalysis Qualitative esearc robing small much equires skilled researcher ubjective, interpretative xploratory Qua titative esearc Limited probing large varies Fe er specialist skills required tatistical escriptive or causal

Type o research

Different research design

In case of Exploratory research study Unaware of Problem in case of descriptive and diagnostic research Aware of Problem

In case of hypothesishypothesistesting research studies Problem clearly defined

Research design in case of Exploratory research design

It is the study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the problem. problem. Hence it is also known as formulative research. research.

Three methods are 1. The survey of concerning literature 2. The experience survey 3. The analysis of inside-stimulating

1.The survey of concerning literature

 Hypothesis stated by earlier workers is

reviewed and their usefulness can be evaluated as a basis for further research.

2. The experience survey

 The experience survey means the survey of

people who had practical experience .  The objective is to obtain new ideas relating to the research problem.

3.The analysis of inside-stimulating

 This method consists of intensive study of the

selected instances of the phenomenon of interest to the researcher  Eg. of insight stimulating cases- reaction of a group, the behaviour of consumers

In case of descriptive and diagnostic research

In case of descriptive research study describing the characteristics of a particular individual , or a group. In diagnostic research study, it determines the frequency with which some thing occurs

Difference between Exploratory/formulative and descriptive/ diagnostic

 Flexible design  Judgmental

sampling  No pre-determined design for analysis  No fixed decision about the operational procedures

 No flexibility  Random sampling  Pre-determined

design for analysis  Advanced decisions

In case of hypothesis-testing research studies

 Hypothesis-testing research studies known

as experimental studies are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of casual relationship between variables.

Degree of Problem Definition

Exploratory Research (Unaware of Problem) Our sales are declining and we dont know why. Would people be interested in our new product idea?

Descriptive Research (Aware of Problem)

Causal Research (Problem Clearly Defined)

What kind of people are buying Will buyers purchase more of our product? Who buys our our products in a new package? competitors product? Which of two advertising What features do buyers prefer campaigns is more effective? in our product?