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One living Family, two living genera, 2 living species. For most of our species-existence, most people have lived with elephants. As we move through the 21st century, this co-existence is becoming increasingly difficult!
Basic ecology (eating even the worst plants) Metabolism (be big) Social organization (center on females) Specifics on Asian elephants (including conservation) Conservation of African elephants
An ancient branch of the Afrotheria evolved to exploit lowquality vegetation. One twig of the branch became aquatic (seacows, upper left). Another twig invaded xeric habitats (hyraxes; upper right; once some types were much bigger). The third twig exploited intermediate habitats and became elephants.
Note the complexity of the Proboscidean tree. Many taxonomists would show Mammuthus branching even later from Elephas. Note that Mammut, Mammuthus, and Stegodon survived until relatively recent times.
Elephas: Once widely distributed from India throughout continental S.E. Asia and into southern China. Now very rare.
Working elephants in Myanmar; tourist elephants elsewhere. Wild elephants in Indian national parks and a few are widely scattered in some other national parks.
Almost everywhere they occur, elephants are often considered more valuable (or less trouble) dead than alive. Nowadays, people have the equipment to make em that way.
Dimensions of Elephants
African elephant: Shoulder height: XX: 2.4-3.4m XY: 3.0-4.0m Mass: XX: 2400-3500kg XY: 4000-6300kg Asian Elephant: Shoulder ht: 2.5-3.0m Mass: 3500-5000kg
Apparent paradox:
Short trunk is useless to tall grazer Evolving structure must be useful at all stages.
The conventional history of elephant evolution: Terrestrial ancestor of Afrotherian megavertebrates gives rise to elephants, seacows, and hyraxes. The trunk of elephant ancestor lengthens in accompaniment with lengthening legs.
Ancient elephants: relatively short legs & trunk that reached ground. Intermediate elephants: longer legs, longer skull, longer jaws, longer trunk that reached ground. then trunk stays on the ground as skull and jaw shortened. But
The structure of elephant lungs and thoracic cavity suggests adaptation for snorkeling.
Anatomical adaptations are numerous and profound. These adaptations cannot easily be accounted for by use of the trunk for terrestrial drinking.
Early snorkeling adaptations would suggest that elephants evolved from aquatic animals.
The logical candidate would be some ancestor shared w/ seacows (conventional). The question is, was that ancestor aquatic? If so, the lengthening of the trunk might have preceded the lengthening of the legs, which would have occurred after an invasion of the land, contrary to the conventional wisdom.
(Note: Were talking about systemic circulation to parietal pleura; pulmonary circulation is protected by Zone 2 Phenomenon.)
The vulnerable pleural membranes are replaced by thick plates of dense connective tissue. The pleural cavity itself is filled with loose connective tissue. The diaphragm is much thicker than would be expected for an animal of elephant size. All these adaptations (and others) are observable early in embryonic development. But weve digressed long enough; back to the trunk
As a sense organ
Touch Smell
As a social-signaling organ
A trumpet that amplifies vocalizations A bearer of visual signals Tusks are next A touch-communicator
Remember: The trunk helps maintain contact with the ground as the legs lengthen.
Cheek teeth
Shredding in living sps & mammoths; crush-grinding in mastodons. 6 molarform teeth per jawquadrant 1 functioning tooth per quadrant; loss in front; magazine replacement from rear (see next 2 slides).
M1
M2
Note: African-elephant data are from wild animals; Asian-elephant data are from captive, working animals.
Next, ecology
Elephant Metabolism
(C is caloric expenses; M is Mass; & M are fitted constants)
Some general principles (Kleiber Curve): C= M is always < 1 (0.75+/-) Now figure expense/size
C/M = ( M0.75)/M C/M = /M0.25
Some elephant specifics: Small stomach, large caecum. Feeding per day:
10-18 hours 150-250kg (c. 5% mass)
That is, expenses per kg decline with increases in body size. That is, elephants main metabolic specialization is to be BIG.
Throughput time c. 1126 hours. Defecation per day: 150250kg Assimilation efficiency:
Elephant: 44% Cow: 66%
Social organization
(Most data are from African elephants.)
A baby elephant is born into a matriarchy after 2122mo. gestation. It receives much education, and interbirth interval is typically 4-6 years.
For 1st 6months, baby is watched all the time. Baby is weaned at 6-18 months (occasionally later). Until its almost 10 years old, juvenile spends c. 50% of its time within 5m of its mother (closer in moments of danger).
XXs stay in natal group, cementing relationships w/mothers, grandmas, sisters, aunts, XX cousins. Between ages 8-20yrs, XYs think increasingly of sex & become such pests that XXs run them out of herd. Thereafter they join bachelor society (next slide).
Skull structure cushions headbashing (pneumatic skull). Use of tusks is dangerous. Biggest XY occasionally return to XX groups. Now, back to the more important considerations of XX groups!
Long-lasting female groups form the nucleus around which all elephant society is organized!
The sociology and physiology of (African) elephant ears: looking big and cooling off!
Elephant social processes are mediated by size. Threat or dominance position has ears extended. Ears also serve as radiators.
Each is right triangle, 1.5mX2m; total surface is 6m2, or about 20% of total. Mass of each ear is about 20kg, or < 1% of total. Blood-flow through ears can be > 1000 liters/hr.
Next: A little on the sociality of Asian elephants
Elephant conservation: How does one act responsibly in a world of limited resources, inequitably distributed?
Conservation? In January 2008 the Philadelphia Zoo announced that it would breed its African elephants to help with species-conservation. The zoo also announced the construction of a $27 million elephant exhibit. One baby might be produced by 2010. Meanwhile, RSA will start killing thousands of elephants in May 2008, and the per-capita income in Zimbabwe is < $1/day.