1

Symmetrical Faults
Chapter 7
2
Faults
Shunt faults:
Three phase
a
b
c
Line to line
Line to ground
2 Line to ground
b
a
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
3
Faults
Series faults
One open phase:
a
b
c
2 open phases
a
b
c
Increased phase
impedance
Z
a
b
c
4
Why Study Faults?
Determine currents and voltages in the
system under fault conditions
Use information to set protective devices
Determine withstand capability that
system equipment must have:
Insulating level
Fault current capability of circuit breakers:
Maximum momentary current
Interrupting current
5
Symmetrical Faults

t=0
2 V
i(t)
Fault at t = 0
AC
R
L
) sin( 2 ) ( o e + = t V t e
6
Symmetrical Faults
For a short circuit at generator terminals at t=0
and generator initially open circuited:

dt
di
L Ri t e + = ) (
dt
di
L Ri t VSin + = + ) ( 2 o e
by using Laplace transforms i(t) can be found
(L is considered constant)
7
Symmetrical Faults
]
/
) ( ) ( [
2
) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
Z
V
t i

+ = u o u o e
2 2 2 2
) ( X R L R Z + = + = e
R
X
Tan
R
L
Tan
1 1
= =
e
u
Where:
R
X
R
L
T
e
= = Time Constant
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ = u o u o e
Where: I
ac
= ac RMS fault current at t=0
(Examples)
Note that for a 3-
phase system will be
different for each
phase. Therefore, DC
offset will be different
for each phase
8
t = 0
ac
I 2
i
ac

I
dc
= 0
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ = u o u o e
o
90 = = u o
V 2
e(t)
o
90 = o
9
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ = u o u o e
0 = o
o
90 = u
V 2
e(t)
t = 0
i
ac

0
2
ac
I
0
2
ac
I
i
d
c

10
i
ac

0
2
ac
I
0
2
ac
I
i
d
c

0
2 2
ac
I
t
0 = o
o
90 = u
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ = u o u o e
) (t i
11
Symmetrical Faults
I
ac
and I
dc
are independent after t = 0

2 2
dc
I
ac
I
RMS
I + =
T t
e
aco
I
dc
I

= 2
Substituting:
T t
e
ac
I
T
t
e
ac
I
ac
I
RMS
I
2
2 1 )
2
2
2
( (max)

+ =

+ =
12
Asymmetry Factor
I
RMS
(max) = K() I
ac

Asymmetry Factor = K()

r
x
e K
t
t
t
4
2 1 ) (

+ =
Where:
= number of cycles
(Example 7.1)
13
Example 7.1
Fault at a time to produce maximum DC offset
Circuit Breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception


I
Fault at t = 0
AC
R = 0.8 X
L
= 8
V = 20 kV
LN

-
+
CB
Find:
1. I
ac
at t = 0
2. I
RMS
Momentary at = 0.5 cycles
3. I
RMS
Interrupting Current
t
14
Example 7.1
a.
RMS AC
kA I 488 . 2
8 8 . 0
20
) 0 (
2 2
=
+
=
b.
438 . 1 2 1 ) 5 . 0 (
)
10
5 .
( 4
= + =
H
e K
KA I
momentary
577 . 3 ) 488 . 2 )( 438 . 1 ( = =
c.
023 . 1 2 1 ) 3 (
)
10
3
( 4
= + =
H
e K
KA I
ng Interrupti
545 . 2 ) 488 . 2 )( 023 . 1 ( = =
15
AC Decrement
In the previous analysis we treated the
generator as a constant voltage behind a
constant impedance for each phase. The
constant inductance is valid for steady state
conditions but for transient conditions, the
generator inductance is not constant.
Recall that for steady state conditions, the
equivalent machine reactance is made up
of 2 parts: a) Armature leakage reactance
b) Armature reaction
(See Phasor Diagram)
16
AC Decrement



Steadystate model of generator
X
L
is leakage reactance
X
AR
is a fictitious reactance and X
AR
>> X
L

X
AR
is due to flux linkages of armature current with the field
circuit
.
Flux linkages can not change instantaneously.
Therefore, if the generator is initially unloaded when a

fault
occurs the effective reactance is X
L
which is referred to as
Subtransient Reactance, x.
AC

E
I

R
X
L
X
AR

Load
17
I
L

jI
L
X
L

jI
L
X
AR
(t)
E
I

Field
Flux
Armature Reaction
Resultant
Field
E
T

X
L

X
AR

-
+
E
I

I=I
L

Load
Loaded Generator
18
E
Field
Flux
Armature Reaction = 0
Resultant
Field
E
T0

t = 0 -
X
L

X
AR
=0
E
T0

-
+
E = E = E = E
T0

I=0
Unloaded Generator
19
X
L

X
AR

-
+
E = E = E = E
T0

I=0
t=0
E

Field
Flux
Armature Reaction = 0
Resultant
Field
E
T0
= 0
Faulted Generator
20
X
L

X
AR
=0
-
+
E = E = E = E
T0

I = I
E = jIX
L

t=0+
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E
T
= 0
I
Armature Reaction = 0
21
X
L

X
AR

-
+
E = E = E = E
T0

I = I
E = jI(X
L
+ X
AR
)
t 3Cyc.
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E
T
= 0
I
Armature Reaction = 0
22
X
L

X
AR
-
+
E = E = E = E
T0

I = I
E = jI(X
L
+ X
AR
)
t =
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E
T
= 0
I
Armature Reaction = 0
23
AC Decrement
As fault current begins to flow, armature reaction will
increase with time thereby increasing the apparent
reactance. Therefore, the ac component of the fault
current will decrease with time to a steady state
condition as shown in the figure below.
" 2I
' 2I
I 2
" 2I
24
AC Decrement
For a round rotor machine we only need to
consider the direct axis reactance.
d X
E
I
"
" 2
" 2 =
Subtransient
d X
E
I
'
' 2
' 2 =
d
X
E
I
2
2 =
Transient
Synchronous
(steadystate)
25
AC Decrement
Can write the ac decrement equation
| ( | )] ) ' ( ) ' " ( 2 ) (
'
"
u o e + + + =

t Sin I e I I e I I t
ac
i
d T
t
d T t
For an unloaded generator
(special case):
T
E E E E = = = ' "
Td: Subtransient time constant
(function of amortisseur winding X/R)
Td: Transient time constant
(function of field winding X/R)
Look at equation for t=0 and t=infinity
26
AC Decrement
For t = 0
| ( | )] ) ' ( ) ' " ( 2 ) (
'
"
u o e + + + =

t Sin I e I I e I I t
ac
i
d T
t
d T t
For t =
I I i
ac
2 ] 0 0 [ 2 (max)
" 2 ] ) ' ( ) ' " [( 2 (max) I I I I I I i
ac
= + + =
27
ac and dc Decrement
Transform ac decrement equation to phasor form
| u o +

/
'
) ' (
"
) ' " (
_
I
d T
t
e I I
d T
t
e I I
ac
I
dc decrement equation:
A
T
t
e Sin I
dc
I

= ) ( " 2 u o
Where T
A
= Armature circuit time constant
(Example 7.2)
28
Network Equivalent circuit
29
Network Equivalent circuit
Lecture 9 Short circuit calculation
Electrical network can be represented by a Thvenin equivalent circuit, voltage source and
series connected inductive reactance and a small resistance. The resistance is neglected
most of the time.
The voltage is the rated network line to neutral voltage. The reactance is calculated f rom the
short circuit current. The power company calculates the short circuit current at every
substation.
Example: A 500 kV network short circuit current is 30kA. Calculate the Thvenin equivalent
circuit and the short circuit current time function.
Network Thvenin Equivalent circuit is:
AC
V
ln
Z
net
30
Network Equivalent circuit
V
net
500kV := I
short
30kA := e 2 t 60 Hz :=
The network line to line voltage and the equivalent network reactance and estimated small
resistance
V
ln
V
net
3
288.675kV = := X
net
V
ln
I
short
9.623O = :=
R
net
X
net
20
:=
Estimated value
L
net
X
net
e
25.524mH = :=
The supply voltage is:
V
sup
t o , ( ) 2 V
ln
sin e t o + ( ) :=
Laplace transf ormation of the supply voltage is:
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) s sin o ( ) + ( )
e
2
s
2
+
2 V
ln
sin e t o + ( )
has Laplace transf orm
31
Network Equivalent circuit V
sup
t o , ( ) 2 V
ln
sin e t o + ( ) :=
Laplace transf ormation of the supply voltage is:
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) s sin o ( ) + ( )
e
2
s
2
+
2 V
ln
sin e t o + ( ) has Laplace transf orm
The system equation when the load current is neglected
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) s sin o ( ) + ( )
e
2
s
2
+
s L
net
R
net
+
( )
i
net

Short circuit current in s domain is: i

net
s o , ( )
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) s sin o ( ) + ( )
e
2
s
2
+
( )
s L
net
R
net
+
( )

:=
Inverse Laplace transf orm is:
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) ( )
e
2
s
2
+
( )
s L
net
R
net
+
( )

has inverse Laplace transf orm

2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) R
net
sin t e
2

( )
L
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

e
2
+ L
net
cos t e
2

( )
e
2

|

\
|
|
|
.

e
2
L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
|
\
|
.

32
Network Equivalent circuit
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) R
net
sin t e
2

( )
L
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

e
2
+ L
net
cos t e
2

( )
e
2

|

\
|
|
|
.

e
2
L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
|
\
|
.

I
sh1
t o , ( )
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) R
net
sin t e
2

( )
L
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

e
2
+ L
net
cos t e
2

( )
e
2

|

\
|
|
|
.

e
2
L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
|
\
|
.

:=
2 V
ln
s sin o ( ) ( )
e
2
s
2
+
( )
s L
net
R
net
+
( )

has inverse Laplace transf orm

2 V
ln
sin o ( ) R
net
cos t e
2

( )
R
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

L
net
sin t e
2

( )
e
2
+
|

\
|
|
|
.

L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
I
sh2
t o , ( )
2 V
ln
sin o ( ) R
net
cos t e
2

( )
R
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

L
net
sin t e
2

( )
e
2
+
|

\
|
|
|
.

L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
:=
33
Network Equivalent circuit
The short circuit current time function
I
Short
t o , ( ) I
sh1
t o , ( ) I
sh2
t o , ( ) + :=
DC component of the current is
I
DC
t o , ( )
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) L
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

\
|
|
|
.

L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
|
\
|
.
2 V
ln
sin o ( ) R
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

\
|
|
|
.

L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
+ :=
I
DC
t o , ( )
2 V
ln
e cos o ( ) L
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

\
|
|
|
.

L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
|
\
|
.
2 V
ln
sin o ( ) R
net
e
R
net
t
L
net

\
|
|
|
.

L
net
2
e
2
R
net
2
+
+ :=
I
DC
0s 0deg , ( ) 42.321kA = I
DC
0s 90deg , ( ) 2.116 kA =
34
Network Equivalent circuit
t 0s 0.01ms , 150ms .. := I
short_max
78.67kA := I
DC_max
42.321kA :=
0 50 100 150
50
0
50
100
I
Short
t 0.0deg , ( )
kA
I
DC
t 0deg , ( )
kA
t
ms
Current and DC component maximum at
o 0deg
35
Network Equivalent circuit
t 0s 0.01ms , 150ms .. := I
Short _max
42.215kA :=
0 50 100 150
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
I
Short
t 90.0deg , ( )
kA
t
ms
No DC component at
o 90deg