Cisco SDH Presentation

Chapter 1
Network Architecture
2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to perform the following tasks:
Identify the main terms used to describe network components Describe the link structure and network elements Describe the interface options and interface layers
Network Architecture-2
Agenda
1.1 - Link Structure and Line Interfaces 1.2 - Network Elements Summary, Information Resources
Section 1.1
Link Structure and Line Interfaces

Objectives
Upon completion of this section, you will be able to perform the following tasks:
Describe the functionality and interaction of the interface layers Define the three overhead layers Describe the topology concepts related to the overhead layers Describe the main features of electrical and optical interfaces
Overhead Layer Concepts

path multiplex section regenerator section PTE path termination
service (E1, E4..) mapping demapping
multiplex section regen. section REG regen. section termination regenerator section PTE path termination
regen. section REG ADM or DCS
regen. section termination
multipl. section termination
PTE = path terminating element MUX = terminal multiplexer REG = regenerator ADM = add/drop multiplexer DCS = digital cross-connect system
service (E1, E4..) mapping demapping

Regenerator Section
Regeneration section layer is the lowest level of link components in a SDH network Deals with the transport of an STM-N frame across the physical medium Point-to-point connection between two regeneration section termination points with direct optical or electrical domain connectivity Terminated by Regenerator Section Terminating Equipment (RSTE) The Regeneration section is mainly designed to overcome physical limitations of the transport technology
2001, Cisco Systems, Inc. Network Architecture-7
Multiplex Section
One or more consecutive regenerator sections might compose a multiplex section Main element to build different topologies (e.g. ring) Deals with the transport of path layer payloads across the physical medium Multiplex section is a point-to-point logical link that connects to ADM, MUX, or DCS devices These devices might not include a path termination Overhead is interpreted and modified by Multiplex Section Terminating Equipment (MSTE) Multiplex section (MS) overhead is accessed only after the section overhead has been first terminated
Path
One or more connected multiplex sections may provide a transport service for a path Multiplex section may carry multiple paths by multiplexing Deals with the transport of various payloads between SDH terminal multiplexing equipment Path layer maps payloads into the format required by the MS Layer Communicates end-to-end via the Path Overhead (POH) POH is terminated and modified by Path Terminating Equipment (PTE) Regenerator and multiplex section overhead must be terminated to access the overhead
HO and LO Paths
In SDH the PDH payload multiplexing is done at 2 different layers High-order (HO) path carries E3/E4 or similar payloads Organized into administrative units (AU) including higher order tributaries Low-order (LO) path carries E1/E2 or similar payloads Organized into tributary units (TU) including lower order tributaries
Topology Concepts
SDH topologies are designed for providing a flexible and reliable transport for required paths Main issues: Capacity planning, bandwidth provisioning Redundancy, automatic fail-over Delay and jitter control Typical topology concepts: Point-to-point links (with protection) and DCS/MUX Arbitrary complex topology may be built Interconnected protected rings with ADM/DCS Minimum resource usage (physical media) for avoiding single point of failures
Physical Layer - I.
Services (E1, E2, E3, E4, Video, etc.)
Map Payload and Path OH into VC
Layers
Path
Payload and Path Overhead
Map VC and MS OH into internal signal Map internal signal and RS OH into STM-N signal
VC and MS Overhead STM-N Signal Light Pulse
Multiplex Section Regen. Section
Regen. Section
Optical Conversion
Physical
Photonic
Terminal
Terminal
Regenerator
Physical Layer - II.

Line coding applied: CMI for electrical interfaces Guarantees transmit-receive clock synchronization Binary NRZ for optical interfaces May change for very high speeds (STM-256 or higher) into RZ solitons Does not guarantee enough 1-0 or 0-1 changes, and thus clock transmit-receive synchronization Depends on the frame content Scrambling is needed for a guarantee
Electrical Interfaces
Defined to be as compatible as possible with existing PDH physical interfaces Same hardware should be used For intra-office applications only Maximum 150 m 75 Ohm coax for STM-1 155.520 Mbit/s, CMI line coding
Optical Interfaces
Intra-office (application code: I-<n>) LED or MLM laser at 1310 nm or 1550 nm Up to 2 km, max. loss 7-12 dB Inter-office, short-haul (application code: S-<n.w>) Low power SLM or MLM laser at 1310 nm or 1550 nm Up to 15 km, max. loss 12 dB Inter-office, long-haul (application code: L-<n.w>) High power SLM or MLM laser at 1310 nm or 1550 nm (zero-dispersion or dispersion-shifted fiber) Up to 40-60 km, loss: 10-28 dB up to STM-1, 10-24 dB up to STM-16
Summary
Describe the functionality and interaction of the interface layers Define the three overhead layers Describe the topology concepts related to the overhead layers Describe the main features of electrical and optical interfaces
Review Questions
How many layers are used to build up a SDH network? What is the purpose of the Multiplex Section layer? What is the purpose of the HO Path overhead and the LO Path overhead ? Why do electrical and optical interfaces have different line coding? Is there a Regenerator Section termination in a Terminal Multiplexer? Is a usual add-drop multiplexer also a Path terminating equipment?
Section 1.2
Network Elements
Objectives
Identify main network concepts Describe the functions of typical network elements
Network Concepts
Networks should be designed by decomposition Service needs into layers Logical connectivity needs into subnetworks Devices might be categorized by functionality and role in the network layers and topology Multiple set of functionality may be integrated into a single device if it is economically feasible
Terminal Multiplexer
Terminal multiplexer is at the edge of the SDH network Provides connectivity to the PDH network devices and certain end-user equipment It includes a regenerator section, multiplex section, and path termination in one link
Regenerator
A regenerator simply extends the possible distance and quality of a line by decomposing it into multiple sections Replaces regenerator section overhead Multiplex section and path overhead is not altered
Add-drop Multiplexer - I.
Add/drop multiplexer (ADM) Main element for configuring paths on top of line topologies (point-to-point or ring) Multiplexed channels may be dropped and added Special drop and repeat mode for broadcast and survivability An ADM has at least 3 logical ports: 2 core and 1 or more add-drop Ports have different roles No switching between the core ports Switching only between the add-drop and the core ports
Add-drop Multiplexer - II.

ADM always includes regenerator and multiplex section termination. However paths might not be terminated, but only switched from one multiplex sections channel to another multiplex sections channel ADM may be integrated with terminal multiplexer functionality for direct interfacing to non-SDH network elements ADM always processes and replaces the multiplex section overhead ADM may not change the path overhead (POH) POH is changed only if terminal multiplexer function is included
SDH Cross-connect
ADM concept is extended to have many similar capacity ports with any-to-any channel connectivity: the resulting device is called a Digital Cross-connect (DCS) SDH DCS may have only 2 logical ports Pure SDH DCS may connect only STM-1 or higher channels with each other Cross-connects are named after historical patch panels interconnecting regenerator or multiplex section termination devices Pure SDH DCS may not include path termination, switching of channels is typically done at the multiplex section layer
Wideband Digital Crossconnect

SDH wideband digital cross-connect (WDCS) is designed for interconnecting a large number of channels at the LO path (e.g. E1 basic PDH) level SDH WDCS has only SDH ports carrying a large number of LO path payloads Interconnection of LO paths may be done virtually, without a physical LO path termination Provides an economical alternative to legacy physical E1 cross-connects
Broadband Digital Crossconnect

Broadband digital cross-connect (BDCS) uses a transparent switch matrix for HO path speeds to interconnect a large number of channels HO path BDCS has a similar architecture to a WDCS in an integrated device Many SDH ports carrying HO path payloads Interconnect without physical HO path termination
Subscriber Loop Access System

Subscriber loop access system (SLAS) is a concentrator of low speed services Provides an efficient feed of subscribers into the central office by using multiplexing to create a higher speed trunk line By using SLASs at the edge of the network, the crossconnects and ADMs can be optimized by having ports with concentrated end-user services SLAS does not provide a local switching function between the input channels, only aggregation
Summary
Identify main network concepts Describe the functions of typical network elements
Review Questions
What is the purpose of a regenerator equipment? What is a Subscriber Loop Access System (SLAS)?
Summary
Information Resources
Questions
?
Books Mike Sexton, Andy Reid: Broadband Networking: ATM, SDH, and SONET Artech House, 1997. ISBN 0-89006-578-0 Web ITU-T standards http://www.itu.int ETSI standards http://www.etsi.org
Summary
After completing this chapter, you should be able to perform the following tasks:
Identify the main terms used to describe network components Describe the link structure and network elements Describe the interface options and interface layers
Chapter 2
Frame Structure
Objectives
Identify the main frame concepts Describe the basic structure of frames at various hierarchy levels Make basic computations for bit rates at various hierarchy levels Describe the internal details of payloads and overheads
Agenda
2.1 - Frame Concept 2.2 - STM-1 Frames 2.3 - STM-n Frames 2.4 - Frames and Rates 2.5 - Payload Internals 2.6 - Overhead Internals Summary, Information Resources
Section 2.1
Frame Concept
Objectives
Describe the notation for electrical and optical signals Describe the two-dimensional frame model Describe the main components of the frame
Electrical and Optical Signals

STM-<N> is electrical, STM-<N>O is optical STM-<N>c means concatenated Not multiplexed signal Originates at that speed Administrative overhead optimized compared to real multiplexed signal Frame format is independent from electrical or optical signals For simplicity we will always refer to STM-<N> only
Two-dimensional Frame Model

Fixed 125 microseconds frame time length To support 8 KHz sampled voice applications Bytes organized into rows and columns Administrative channels are rate decoupled for easier processing STM-1 frame is organized into 270 (3 x 90) columns by 9 rows Frame size is 2430 bytes 9 x 270 bytes/frame x 8 bits/byte x 8000 frame/s = 155.52 Mbit/s
SONET Compatibility
STM-0 frame is defined to be compatible with STS-1 of SONET Originally it was only a virtual tool to show SONET compatibility (not part of ITU-T specifications in 1993) Recently it has become a valid real-life frame format for microwave links (proposed by ETSI, included into new merged ITU-T G.707 standard in 1996) STM-1 has a compatibly structure with STS-3 of SONET Although STM-0 is already defined, for historical reasons most SDH discussions are based on STM-1 In many places specifications use a multiplication by the hierarchy level, so 0 cannot be used
Overheads
3x3=9 columns section overhead (SOH) for STM-1 Includes a complex set of OAM information 3 rows (27 bytes) for regenerator section (RS) overhead (RSOH) 1 row (9 bytes) for administrative unit (AU) pointer 5 rows (45 bytes) for multiplex section (MS) overhead (MSOH) Path overhead (POH) Provides framing for payload, not part of SOH
Path
Path Terminator
REG R-Section M-Section R-Section
ADM or DCS
REG R-Section R-Section
Path Terminator
M-Section
Payloads - I.
Two main types of payloads: Multiplexed voice channels originated in PDH based devices Transparent bit stream services May be used for data packet transport or ATM Payloads are organized into paths over the network Different path types based on the content STM path, HO or LO path etc. Payloads are managed by using the multiplex section overhead (MSOH) and the path overhead (POH)
Payloads - II.
Payloads are put into a so called payload or VC (virtual container) capacity Frames provide a higher bit rate than the payload Required to be able to compensate for frequency differences Similar concept to PDH stuffing Payloads may arrive with very different phases Varying line delays cannot be avoided in a WAN with long distances Light needs some time to reach from the transmitter to the receiver that is much bigger than the bit timing interval or the frame cycle time
Pointers
Pointers were included into SDH design to provide tools to compensate for incoming payload phase differences Without extensive buffering So not too much delay and jitter Advantage over PDH network where this problem was solved by asynchronous multiplexing and a lot of bad consequences Pointers make it possible to create ring topologies (efficient fail-over redundancy) for SDH
Summary
Describe the notation for electrical and optical signals Describe the two-dimensional frame model Describe the main components of the frame
Review Questions
Why are SDH frames repeated every 125 microseconds?
Why are overhead channels distributed evenly in the bit stream?
Why are pointers needed to implement ring topologies?
Section 2.2
STM-1 Frames
Objectives
Describe the overall structure of the frame Describe the payload pointer solution for timing differences
General Structure
Order of transmission 1st 2nd
270 columns
Section overhead (SOH)
VC Capacity (for AUG)
9 columns
261 columns
Synchronous Payload Envelope - I.

SPE = Synchronous Payload Envelope is the common sense name (also used for SONET) AUG = Administrative Unit Group is the official ITU-T name for the SPE + 4. row of SOH (AU pointer) 261 columns x 9 rows POH is 1 column Fixed stuffing depends on internal structure of AUG 260 columns = 2340 bytes for AUG-4 payload capacity AUG may be composed by different type of administrative units (AU) 1 x AU-4 (specific to carry PDH E4, not compatible with SONET frame structure) Or 3 x AU-3 (compatible with SONET frame structure)
Synchronous Payload Envelope - II.

Administrative unit is composed of a pointer and a virtual container (VC) Pointer for VC-4 inside an AU-4 is the full 4. row of SOH Pointer for VC-3 inside an AU-3 is determined by a 1:3 demultiplexing of the 4. row of SOH VC inside AU may begin anywhere in STM-1 VC capacity AU (payload) pointer in SOH designates the first byte of VC inside AU (SPE)
STM-1 VC-3 Capacity Structure

87 columns
Payload Capacity
Path overhead (POH)
Path overhead Fixed stuff (POH)
1 column
30. column
59. column
STM-1 VC-4 Capacity Structure

261 columns
Payload Capacity
Path overhead (POH)
1 column
Payload Pointer
Payload Pointer marks start of STM-1 VC-3 or VC-4
90 (VC-3) or 270 (VC-4) Columns STM-1 Frame #1
H1 H2 H3...
9 Rows STM-1 Frame #2
STM-1 VC-3 or VC-4

125 sec
9 Rows
STM-1 VC-3 or VC-4 POH column

250 sec
Section Overhead
Summary
Describe the overall structure of the frame Describe the payload pointer solution for timing differences
Review Questions
What is the size of a basic STM-1 frame? Which type of frame has been defined to show compatibility with SONET ? What are the overheads carried by a STM-1 frame? What is the purpose of pointers in a SDH frame?
Section 2.3
STM-n Frames
Objectives
Describe the overall structure of multiplexing frames Describe the main steps of the multiplexing process Identify the concept of concatenated payloads Determine the details of frame structures for a common hierarchy level
General Structure
STM-N structure Byte-interleaving STM-1 modules No extra overhead introduced Overhead of multiplexed signals taken over, but section overhead (SOH) should be replaced with new information for the STS-N multiplex section Overhead is growing in absolute number of bits, but relative size is the same New overhead is bigger than necessary for regenerator and multiplex section overheads, so some bytes are unused Section overhead (SOH) is frame aligned SPE (multiplexed VC-3 or VC-4 channels) is not frame aligned
STM-N frame
270 x N Columns
9xN Columns STM-N VC capacity 9 Rows
125 sec Section Overhead

Multiplexing Processes
Multiplexing is composed of various processes: Mapping Tributaries adapted into Virtual Containers (VC) by adding stuffing and POH Aligning Pointer is added to locate the VC inside an AU or TU Multiplexing Interleaving the bytes of multiple paths Stuffing Adding up the fixed stuff bits to compensate for frequency variances
Concatenated Frames
X-1 Columns SDH terminology is using X instead of N (X = N)
X x 260 Columns STM POH 9 bytes 9 Rows Fixed Stuff (9X-9 bytes)
STS-Xc Payload Capacity (AU-4-Xc)
STM-4c = 599.040 Mbit/s STM-16c = 2396.160 Mbit/s

125 sec
X x 261 Columns
Frame Structures for Each Common Hierarchy Level

STM-1
9 Rows 270 Columns 155.52 Mbit/s
STM-4
9 Rows
1,080 Columns
622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16
9 Rows
4,320 Columns
2488.32 Mbit/s
STM-64
9 rows x 17280 columns, 9953.28 Mbit/s

Summary
Describe the overall structure of multiplexing frames Describe the main steps of the multiplexing process Identify the concept of concatenated payloads Determine the details of frame structures for a common hierarchy level
Review Questions
What is the big advantage of the SDH multiplexing concept over PDH in terms of overhead? Why is it important to have more fixed stuffing at higher line rates?
What is the concept behind allocating the amount of fixed stuffing?
Section 2.4
Frames and Rates
Objectives
Identify the various bit rates used to characterize TDM networks Describe how the multiplexing process affects the bit rates Make the computation to summarize the rate hierarchy
Line, SPE and Payload Rates

Line rate = SOH + SPE SPE rate = POH + payload capacity + fixed stuffing VC payload capacity rate = line rate - SOH - POH - fixed stuffing Transparent bit-stream capacity rate = line rate SOH - POH Example for STM-1 frame line rate: 270 columns x 9 rows = 2430 bytes 8000 fps x 19440 bits = 155.52 Mbit/s
Multiplexing Effect on Rates

Because of synchronous TDM byte-multiplexing the line rate is simply multiplied Example for STM-4 frame line rate: 4 x STM-1 byte-multiplexing 4 x 155.52 Mbit/s = 622.08 Mbit/s With higher level concatenated frames the transparent bit-stream capacity rate increases slightly as a relative value Since the POH is a fixed absolute value in this case However, fixed stuff may use up this extra capacity
Rate Hierarchy
SONET Optical Electrical Level Level OC-3 STS-3 OC-12 STS-12 OC-48 STS-48 OC-192 STS-192 OC-768 STS-768
SDH Level STM-1 STM-4 STM-16 STM-64 STM-256
Line Rate (Mbit/s) 155.52 622.08 2488.32 9953.28 39813.12
SPE Rate (Mbit/s) 150.336 601.344 2405.376 9621.504 38486.016
Summary
Identify the various bit rates used to characterize TDM networks Describe how the multiplexing process affects the bit rates Make the computation to summarize the rate hierarchy
Review Questions
Is the SPE rate a good measure of the capacity available to a data transport client? What is the VC payload capacity rate of a concatenated 40 Gbit/s SDH signal? Demonstrate the computation steps! How much frequency variation is allowed by the fixed stuffing in a 10 Gbit/s SDH signal? Demonstrate the computation steps!
Section 2.5
Payload Internals
Objectives
Identify the need for special structures to support a mixture of payloads Describe the grouping options of various payloads Describe the pointer processing associated with the individual payloads
Administrative and Tributary Units

Multiplexing of PDH signals inside SDH is organized using administrative and tributary units One more multiplexing level than SONET Administrative unit (AU) is a special construct for SDH, which allows two alternative ways of multiplexing and thus supporting PDH E4 mapping and SONET compatibility at the same time Tributary unit is a construct which accommodates various PDH signals at the lower level AU and TU are both called units, because both are composed from a virtual container and a pointer Byte-multiplexed AUs and TUs are called an AU group (AUG) and a TU Group (TUG) respectively
Virtual Containers - I.
Virtual containers (VC-x) encapsulate a PDH payload with a special framing and a POH In SDH terminology, the original PDH payload with special framing is called a container (C-x) Various container sizes with some space for stuffing are defined C-11 for DS1 (25 bytes = 1.600 Mbit/s) C-12 for E1 (34 bytes = 2.176 Mbit/s) C-2 for DS2 (106 bytes = 6.784 Mbit/s) C-3 for DS3 or E3 (84 columns = 48.384 Mbit/s) C-4 for E4 (260 columns = 149.760 Mbit/s)
Virtual Containers - II.

Various VC sizes defined: With 1 byte allocated for POH VC-11 for DS1 (26 bytes = 1.664 Mbit/s) VC-12 for E1 (35 bytes = 2.240 Mbit/s) VC-2 for DS2 (107 bytes = 6.848 Mbit/s) With 1 column allocated for POH VC-3 for DS3 or E3 (85 columns = 48.960 Mbit/s) VC-4 for E4 (261 columns = 150.336 Mbit/s)
Tributary Unit Structure

TUs are defined to fit into a number of columns This requirement determines the size of virtual containers and containers TU-3 adds up 3-byte pointer plus stuffing to VC-3 Lower TUs add up 1 byte for pointer storage Organized into 4 frames (500 s multi-frame) This provides V1, V2, V3, V4 TU pointer bytes Lower TUs also organize POH along the multi-frame This provides V5, J2, N2, K4 POH bytes
Mapping Hierarchy - I.
STM-N STM-1 STS-1 STS-1 STS-1 Frame Frame Frame Frame AU AU AU AU DS1 DS1 DS1 DS1 E1 TUDS1C E1 TUDS1C E1 TUDS1C E1 TUDS1C DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2 SPE-Nc
DS1
E1
DS2
DS3/E3
DS3/E3
E4
IP/ATM/Video
Mapping Hierarchy - II.

STS-3N STS-3N xN STM-N AUG
x1 AU-4 x3 VC-4 x3 TUG-3 VC-3 STS-1 STS-1 SPE SPE x7 x1 TUG-2 VT VT group group
STS-3c BULK STS-3c BULK C-4 x1 TU-3 VC-3 C-3 DS3 BULK DS3 BULK
139 Mbit/s ATM
x1 STM-0 AUG STS-1 STS-1 AU-3
x7
44 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
TU-2 x3 TU-12
VC-2
C-2
6.3 Mbit/s
VC-12
C-12 2 Mbit/s
xN
Multiplexing Aligning Mapping
x4 TU-11 VT-1.5 VT-1.5 VC-11 C-11 1.5 Mbit/s
Pointer Processing - I.
Pointer processing compensates for phase differences and small frequency variations (lasting for a number of frames) 10-bit pointer offset is stored in the H1, H2 overhead bytes (normal range is 0-782) Specifies the byte position after the last H3 byte in the VC capacity For AU-4 the byte position is 3 x (pointer offset) + 1 TU pointer processing has a similar concept but different implementation details TU-3 uses H1, H2, H3 bytes inside the TU payload capacity Lower TUs use V1, V2, V3, V4 bytes in 500 s multi-frame
Pointer Processing - II.

AU-4 positive frequency justification If the tributary has a lower speed than its nominal rate, then 3 stuffed bytes are inserted just after the last H3 overhead byte Indicated by an inversion of the I-bits in the H1, H2 overhead bytes AU-4 negative frequency justification If the tributary has a higher speed than its nominal rate, then H3 overhead bytes are used to carry extra payload bytes Indicated by an inversion of the D-bits in the H1, H2 overhead bytes
Low- and High-order Paths

2 mapping levels may be clearly identified in SDH: AU for high-order (HO) paths Direct termination of DS3, E3, E4, ATM May carry multiple LO paths by multiplexing TU for low-order (LO) paths Termination of DS1, DS2, DS3, E1, E3 2 special layered networks on top of STM-1 SDH network HO and LO networks Managed by HO-POH and LO-POH information DS3/E3 may be part of both the HO or the LO network
Summary
Identify the need for special structures to support a mixture of payloads Describe the grouping options of various payloads Describe the pointer processing associated with the individual payloads
Review Questions
What are the two pointer options used by an AUG? Does an E3 client signal belong to a High-order Path or to a Low-order Path? What is the main difference between positive and negative frequency justification?
Section 2.6
Overhead Internals
Objectives
Describe the multiplexing process of overhead bytes Describe the meaning of overhead bytes at various hierarchy levels
STM-1 Overheads
STM-1 overheads were designed to be compatible with SONET overheads Thus STM-1 overhead looks very similar to STS-3 overhead Easiest to understand by drawing STM-0 section overhead first Then creating STM-1 section overhead by multiplexing STM-0 3 times, and leaving out unnecessary bytes POH is not changed by multiplexing
STM-0 Overheads
Section Overhead
Framing A1 Framing A2 Orderwire E1 Data Com D2 Pointer H2 APS K1 Data Com D5 Data Com D8 Data Com D11 (REI) (M1)
HO Path Overhead
RS Trace J0 User Channel F1 Data Com D3 Pointer H3 APS K2 Data Com D6 Data Com D9 Data Com D12 Orderwire E2 Path Trace J1 BIP-8 B3 Signal Label C2 Path Status G1 User Channel F2 Multiframe Indicator H4 User Channel F3 APS K3 Tandem N1
R-Section Overhead
BIP-8 B1 Data Com D1
AU pointer
Pointer H1 BIP-8 B2
M-Section Overhead
Data Com D4 Data Com D7 Data Com D10 Sync S1
STM-1 Section Overhead
A1
A1 H1* B2
A1 H1* B2
A2 E1 D2 H2 K1 D5 D8 D11
A2 H2*
A2
J0 F1 D3
R-Section Overhead AU pointer
B1 D1 H1 B2
- media dependent
H2*
H3 K2 D6 D9 D12
H3
H3
H1* = 10010011 H2* = 11111111
M-Section Overhead
D4 D7 D10 S1
national use
M1
E2
STM-N Section Overhead

Created by multiplexing STM-1 section overheads Only a few bytes are extended into each position A1/A2, B2, national use Most bytes are not multiplied by multiplexing, only the first appearance is used in the higher level (bigger) frames
Regenerator Section Overhead Bytes

Framing bytes (A1, A2) Identify the start of each STM-0 frame R-Section Trace (J0) Used to trace the origin of the STM-1 frame BIP-8 = Bit Interleaved Parity (B1) Checks even-parity on previous STM-N frame after scrambling Orderwire (E1) 64 Kbit/s voice path used for communication User (F1) Optional, vendor specific DCC = Data Communications Channel (D1-D3)
R-Section OH A1 B1 D1 A2 E1 D2 J0 F1 D3
Data Communication Channel (DCC)

Formed by the D1, D2 and D3 bites in the Section Overhead Creates a 192 Kbit/s link Used for monitoring, alarms, provisioning, and software download Protocol is point-to-point between ADMs Today protocol is proprietary Moving to IS-IS, CLNS and ES-IS
R-Section
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 268 269 270 271 273 D1 D2 c c H2 K1 c c K2 D3
M-SectionH1
STM-1 SDH Frame

SPE
2430
Section Overhead (SOH)
Path Overhead (POH)

AU Pointers
Pointer (H1, H2) Two bytes used to indicate the offset between the pointer bytes and the first byte of the SPE Also indicates concatenation Pointer Action (H3) Used to compensate for the SPE timing variations Positive/negative stuff bytes Pointer bytes tell when H3 is being used
M-Section OH H1 B2 D4 D7 H2 K1 D5 D8 H3 K2 D6 D9 D12 E2
D10 D11 S1
M1
Pointer Bytes (H1, H2) for AU3 Based Frames

STM-1 pointer bytes usage: 3 x AU-3 bit streams should be located
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 268 269 270 271 273
STM-1
H1 H1
H1
H2 H2
H2
2430
Section Overhead (SOH)

1 2 3 87 89 90
3 x AU-3's
H1 H2
SPE
810
Path Overhead (POH)

Multiplex Section Overhead Bytes - I.

BIP-24 (B2) interleaved parity Used for STM-N multiplex section error monitoring Parity check on MSOH and previous STM-N frame before scrambling Provided for each STM-1 inside STM-N APS = Automatic Protection Switching (K1, K2) APS commands and error conditions between line termination equipment
H1 B2 D4 D7 H2 K1 D5 D8 M-Section OH H3 K2 D6 D9 D12 E2
D10 D11 S1
M1
Multiplex Section Overhead Bytes - II.

DCC (D4-D12) Uses same protocols and procedures as the RS-DCC For OAM&P messages between OSS and SDH multiplexsection-level equipment Synchronization Status (S1) Allows the SDH equipment to choose the best clocking source from many candidates STM-N REI-L (M1) M-Section OH Multiplex Section Level Remote Error Indicator H1 H2 H3 Orderwire (E2) K2 B2 K1 D4 D5 D6 64 Kbit/s voice channel D7 D8 D9 Defined only in the first STS-N signal D10 D11 D12
S1 M1 E2
Path Overhead Bytes - I.

STS Path Trace (J1) Fixed length Access Point ID enabling the path terminator to verify connection 15-byte E.164 address plus 1 byte CRC-7 A 64-byte version permitted for SONET compatibility Path BIP-8 (B3) Parity check of previous VC before scrambling
Path OH Path Trace J1 BIP-8 B3 Signal Label C2 Path Status G1 User Channel F2 Indicator H4 User Channel F3 APS K3 Tandem N1
Path Overhead Bytes - II.

Path Signal Label (C2) VC content type (mapping) Path Status (G1) Allows the entire path to be monitored end to end Used to notify the originating end of the path Performance and status of the entire duplex path Carries the Remote Error Indicator (REI) and the path Remote Defect Indicator (RDI)
Path Overhead Bytes - III.

Path User Channel (F2) Used by the network provider for internal network communications Position and Sequence Indicator (H4) Used when the frame is organized into various mappings like Virtual Tributaries or ATM cells User Channel (F3) APS (K3) Network Operator Byte (N1)
Summary
Describe the multiplexing process of overhead bytes Describe the meaning of overhead bytes at various hierarchy levels
Review Questions
What are the H1 and H2 bytes in the Multplex Section overhead used for? What are the A1 and A2 bytes in the Regenerator Section overhead used for? Why is the parity computed before scrambling? Is there a difference between SDH frames in various countries?
Summary
Questions
?
Books Stamatios V. Kartalopoulos: Understanding SONET/SDH and ATM IEEE, 1999; ISBN 0780347455
Summary
Identify the main frame concepts Describe the basic structure of frames at various hierarchy levels Make the basic computation for bit rates at various hierarchy levels Describe the internal details of payloads and overheads
Chapter 3
Topology and Protection
Objectives
Identify the main issues in topology design Define the main topologies Identify the main protection switching concepts Describe the operations of typical topology configurations
Agenda
3.1 - Topology Basics 3.2 - Protection Switching 3.3 - USHR Topology 3.4 - BSHR Topology Summary, Information Resources
Section 3.1
Topology Basics
Objectives
Identify main topology alternatives Describe routing and provisioning concepts
Topology Alternatives
Point-to-point Used for SDH island trunks in old asynchronous networks, or data services as POS or ATM links Linear point-to-multipoint Adds up ADM in the middle Max. 16 nodes Hub network A DCS interconnects ADMs Ring ADMs are put into a ring Redundant, multiple connected rings Automatic protection switching (APS)
USHR
Uni- and Bi-directional Routing

A F C-A E D Uni-directional Ring (1 fiber) C E D Bi-directional Ring (2 fibers) A-C B F C-A A A-C B
Only working traffic is shown Subnetwork (path) or multiplex section switching for protection
Add-drop Provisioning
Transport connections over a SDH infrastructure are created by add-drop provisioning A path is built up by specifying hop-by-hop which channels should be added to a ring and which channels should be dropped from the ring Add-drop provisioning is typically done by the network management system There is no signaling protocol
Add and Drop Example

STM-4 Ring 4 x STM-1 channels Uni-directional routing Provisioning: add 1-3 (drop 3-1) add 3-4 (drop 4-3) add 4-2 (drop 2-4) 2 channels occupied
Drop Drop ADM 2 Add 1-3
ADM 1 Add 4-2 OC-12 ADM 4 Drop ADM 3 Add 3-4
Drop and Continue Example

STM-4 Ring 4 x STM-1 channels Uni-directional routing Provisioning: add 1-2,3 add 2-4,1 2 channels occupied
Drop & Continue Add 2-4,1 ADM 2 OC-12 Add 1-2,3 Drop ADM 1 Drop & Continue ADM 4
ADM 3 Drop
Uni- and Bi-directional Example

Provisioning:
add 1-3 add 3-1
Uni-directional routing
ADM 1
Bi-directional routing
ADM 1
ADM 2 ADM 3
ADM 4
ADM 2 ADM 3
ADM 4
Summary
Identify main topology alternatives Describe routing and provisioning concepts
Review Questions
Which types of topologies does the SDH network support? Is there a signaling protocol that allows the addressing of different SDH nodes within a network?
Section 3.2
Protection Switching
Objectives
Identify the main alternatives in creating protection switching solutions Describe the main features of various configuration options Describe the operational steps in the activation of protection switching
Multiplex Section Protection Switching

information controlling protection switching R-Section Overhead
Payload
M-Section Overhead
Conditions resulting in a protection switch: Loss of signal, loss of frame LOS AIS Line AIS (all 1s) upstream REI OCN Signal degrade Excessive BIP-24 errors in MS overhead
down stream
Path Protection Switching

R-Section Overhead Payload VC Path Overhead STM Path Overhead VC Payload Info controlling protection switching
M-Section Overhead
Conditions resulting in a protection switch: Loss of pointer, STM or VC AIS Excessive BIP errors for STM path, BIP errors for VC path
Automatic Protection Switching - I.

APS = Automatic Protection Switching Allows network to react to failed lines, interfaces, or poor signal quality Performed over the entire STM-N payload Uses K1 and K2 bytes of MS Overhead
MSTE
K1K2 Write K1K2 Read/Sel
Tributary Channels
STM-N Mux
MSTE
K1K2 Read/Sel
K1K2 Write
Working STM-N
Protect STM-N
STM -N Mux
Tributary Channels
Automatic Protection Switching - II.

K1 byte: Type of request (bits 1-4) Channel requested (bits 5-8) K2 byte: Channel selected (bits 14) Architecture (bit 5) Mode of operation (bits 6-8) e.g. Alarm Indication Signal (AIS), Remote Defect Indicator (RDI)
Tributary Channels
STM-N Mux
MSTE
K1K2 Read/Sel
K1K2 Write
Working STM-N
Protect STM-N
MSTE
K1K2 Write
K1K2 Read/Sel
STM -N Mux
Tributary Channels
Uni- and Bi-directional APS

Uni-directional APS Only traffic on the affected fiber is switched to the protect line Bi-directional APS TX and RX are both switched when channel is affected
Revertive and Non-revertive APS

Revertive switching Will restore to the working channel when WTR timer expires Non-revertive switching Will not move to working channel after failure unless requested
1+1 Protection
Bi- or unidirectional Non-revertive Transmits traffic on both channels
Working facility
Protection facility
ADM/Router
ADM/Router
1:n Protection - I.
1:1 protection (special case of 1:n) Bi- or unidirectional Revertive Typically dedicated protection May transmit traffic on both channels, or use protect for low priority traffic
Working facility
Protection facility
ADM/Router
ADM/Router
1:n Protection - II.

1:n protection Bi- or unidirectional Revertive Shared protection facility
Working facility
ADM/Router
Protection facility
ADM/Router
APS Operations
1:n Bi-directional switching: Switch when transmitted bits K1:5-8 equals received bits K2:1-4 1:n Unidirectional switching Same as 1:n 1+1 Switching Bi-directional - as above Unidirectional - each end operates independently Switch occurs immediately without capability to reset
Summary
Identify the main alternatives in creating protection switching solutions Describe the main features of various configuration options Describe the operational steps in the activation of protection switching
Review Questions
What is APS used for? What is the difference between a two-fiber uniand bi-directional link? What is the difference between revertive and non-revertive protection switching? Which two bytes of the Multiplex Section overhead are used to initiate an APS?
Section 3.3
USHR Topology
Objectives
Identify the main concepts in constructing protected ring topologies Describe the main features and application areas Describe the typical operational scenarios Describe the standardization efforts for interoperability
USHR Concepts
USHR/P = Unidirectional Self-Healing Ring / Path Switched 2-fiber ring topology Head-end bridge, tail-end switch logical topology 1+1 protection with uni-directional routing on each fiber Traffic is sent in both directions on the ring on separate fibers The better signal is selected by the receiver
Application Areas
Used in the access network or MAN All traffic homing into a central node e.g. CO Typical for STM-1, STM-4 rings
Features
Simplicity at the expense of capacity Bandwidth used, cannot be reused VC-1/2 and/or STM visibility Quick local fail-over independent from the rest of the network No signaling protocol needed
Operations Traffic Flow

One direction of duplex traffic between any two nodes goes through each ring link for both working and protection traffic Reverse direction of transmission is dedicated to protection Therefore, the maximum capacity of this ring equals the line rate, i.e. STM-4, STM-16 etc.
working traffic A F protection traffic E D C B
Operations Fiber Cut - I.

Protection dedicated head end bridge Failure interrupts A-C working traffic Receiver at C detects failure
F Protection Traffic Working Traffic A
C Working traffic selected

D
Operations Fiber Cut - II.

Fiber cut recovery steps: Tail end (receiver) switches to protection traffic Only the receiving node knows about the protection switch No traffic lost
C Protection traffic selected

D
Operations Node Failure - I.

Protection bandwidth dedicated - head end bridge Failure interrupts A-C working traffic Receiver at C detects failure
F Protection Traffic Working Traffic
Node Failure
C Working traffic selected

D
Operations Node Failure - II.

Node recovery steps: Tail end (receiver) switches to protection traffic Only receiving node knows about the protection switch Traffic to/from failed node is lost
Node Failure B
C Protection traffic selected

D
Standardization
Basic APS operations are defined in ITU-T G.783 USHR/P is originally not fully defined by ITU-T Later defined in ITU-T G.841 as general VC trail protection switching independent of the underlying topology USHR/P is called 1+1 unidirectional VC trail switching (ring topology is only a special case) with dedicated protection USHR/MS and other variants are more a theoretical possibility than real products
Summary
Review Questions
Why is the USHR/P based APS very fast? Why is it natural to use only uni-directional APS in a USHR/P configuration? Why USHR/MS is not a practical idea?
Section 3.4
BSHR Topology
Objectives
BSHR Concepts - I.
BSHR/MS = Bi-directional Self-Healing Ring / Multiplex Section Switched 1:1, or 1:N redundancy options 2 fibers with shared protection configuration Half the bandwidth in each direction in a link is reserved for the shared protection of all traffic in that reverse direction of the link An even number of STM-1s are required 4 fibers for dedicated protection configuration Bi-directional routing on 2 fibers (working line) Each direction has a working and a protect fiber
BSHR Concepts - II.

Multiple fail-over options for 4-fiber BSHR/MS In normal operation traffic is sent only in the required direction During fiber interruption, the traffic is routed around the break in opposite direction (long path) Ring switching Optionally if the other 2 fibers are still available, then traffic might be routed onto the parallel 2 fibers (short path) Span switching
Traffic to/from an NE
dedicated protection
STM-1 #1-12 all paths working traffic STM-1 #1-12 all paths dedicated protection traffic
Network Element
STM-1 #1-12 all paths working traffic STM-1 #1-12 all paths dedicated protection traffic
shared protection
STM-1 #1-6 working traffic STM-1 #7-12 shared protection traffic STM-1 #1-6 working traffic STM-1 #7-12 shared protection traffic STM-1 #1-6 working traffic STM-1 #7-12 shared protection traffic STM-1 #1-6 working traffic STM-1 #7-12 shared protection traffic
Network Element
Both rings have an add/drop capability of up to 12 STM-1s at any node

Application Areas
Used in the WAN backbone Neighboring traffic pattern is the best fit BSHR/MS rings are interconnected in a hierarchy Number of hops should be minimized Capacity of rings increasing as moving up in the ring hierarchy Rings might be classified into aggregation and core
Features
More complexity, but more flexible capacity Bandwidth used can be reused Requires signaling between ADMs STM visibility Might restore service in less than 50 milliseconds on a 1200 km or less ring
Operations Traffic Flow

Duplex traffic between two nodes goes through a subset of ring links Minimum capacity equals line rate (same as USHR/P maximum) Line rate must be an even integer of STM-1 for 2-fiber configurations Automatically fulfilled with newer standards
F A B
E D
C only working traffic shown

Maximum Bandwidth Capacity

Each link represents half of the line rate of STM-1s (i.e. 8 STM-1s for an F-A STM-16) All traffic from a node goes to adjacent nodes Max. capacity = 0.5 (line rate) x number of nodes
E-F A-F F Only working traffic shown E-D D-E
A B-A
A-B
F-E
C-B
B-C
E D-C D
C-D
Extra Traffic
Extra traffic utilizes shared protection bandwidth Extra traffic is not protected when a failure occurs Extra traffic could be lost when a failure of working traffic occurs Extra traffic is ONLY available on a BSHR/MS
Working Traffic
F Extra Traffic in Protection bandwidth E
D

Failure interrupts A-C and C-A traffic A and B detect failure
A
STM-1#4 STM-1#4
Fiber cut
Working Traffic
D

No dedicated protection bandwidth - only used when protection required Only nodes next to the failure know about the protection switch No traffic lost
F
STM-1#10 into STM-1#4
Fiber cut A
STM-1#4 into STM-1#10 STM-1#10 into STM-1#4
Loops
Working Traffic
Protection Traffic
Operations Node Failure - I.

Failure interrupts D-F and F-D traffic A and C detect failure
A
STM-1#4 STM-1#4
Node Failure F Working Traffic B
D
Operations Node Failure - II.

No dedicated protection bandwidth - only used when protection required Only nodes next to the failure know about the protection switch Traffic to/from failed node lost
Protection Traffic
A
Loops Node Failure B Loops

Working Traffic
Squelching Problem
Traffic terminating on nodes cut off by failures could be misconnected to other nodes on the ring in case of using a local F fail-over decision
STM-1#1 A STM-1#1 B Working Traffic STM-1#1 E C STM-1#1 Node Failure
D
Squelching Misconnections
Node F now talking to Node E instead of Node B Misconnection would occur
F Working Traffic STM-1#1 A Node Failure B
E Protection Traffic D STM-1#7

STS-1#1
Squelching - Path AIS Insertion

STM Path AIS is inserted instead of the looped STM-1#7 No misconnections
F Working Traffic STM-1#1 Path AIS inserted by Node C STS-1#1
STM-1#1 Path AIS inserted by Node A STM-1#1 B Node Failure
Protection Traffic
D STM-1#7
Squelching - Summary
Squelching is required to assure that misconnections are not made Only required for bidirectional line switched rings since it is the only ring to provide a reuse capability of STM-1s around the ring Only required when nodes are cut off from the ring Only required for traffic terminating on the cut off nodes A ring map that includes all STM and VC Paths on the ring is available at every node on the ring Squelching is also required for extra traffic since the extra traffic may be dropped when a protection switch is required
Standardization
Basic APS operations are defined in ITU-T G.783 BSHR/MS is first defined in ITU-T G.803 (1993), but exact details are referred to as for further study Later ITU-T G.841 (1995) defines BSHR/MS, but only for shared protection Dedicated protection is referred to as for further study (1998) Conflict with common sense terminology 4-fiber BSHR is called shared (!) protection since extra traffic might use the protection fibers BSHR/P and other variants are more a theoretical possibility than real products
Summary
Review Questions
Why is signaling required to ensure proper fail-over in a BSHR/MS protection switching? What is the difference between shared protection in a 2-fiber and a 4-fiber ring? Is 1:n protection available in a 4-fiber ring? Why is there a potential misconnection problem at node failures?
Summary
Remember...
Unidirectional ring: all working traffic travels around the ring in the same direction for both A to B and B to A traffic; i.e. clockwise or counterclockwise Bidirectional ring: all working traffic between two nodes travels the two directions on the same set of fiber links between the two nodes; i.e. A to B clockwise and B to A counterclockwise MS switching: APS is based on received MS signal status and MS layer performance parameters Path switching: APS is based on received path layer signal status and path layer performance parameters
Remember...
Ring switching: alternative path used is in the other direction on the ring Span switching: alternative path used is in parallel with the failed path Squelching: insertion of AIS for looped signals during protection switching to avoid misconnections Extra traffic: the utilization of the the protection bandwidth in a MS switched ring for traffic that can and may be disrupted when a protection switch is established
Remember...
+ BSHR/MS provides higher bandwidth capacity when internodal traffic exists between ring nodes BSHR/MS provides the same bandwidth capacity as USHR/P when all traffic homes on a single node, as in some access configurations + BSHR/MS evolves to support new service types like ATM easily, path switched rings require new paths to be defined for new services that dont fit into STSs or VTs - USHR/P is perceived to be simpler since it can be thought of as diverse routing - BSHR/MS is perceived to be complex because of protection loops and squelching Both BSHR/MS and USHR/P require synchronization protection switching which in a line switched protection scheme is not needed
Questions
?
Articles Dave Johnson, et al.: The Evolution of a Reliable Transport Network IEEE Communications Magazine, August 1999, pp.52-57.
Summary
Identify the main issues in topology design Define the main topologies Identify the main protection switching concepts Describe the operations of typical topology configurations
Chapter 4
Time Synchronization
Objectives
Identify the main requirements for time synchronization Describe the main synchronization modes Describe the principles of network synchronization Describe the concept and operation of time synchronization protection
Agenda
4.1 - Time Synchronization Basics 4.2 - Synchronization Networks 4.3 - Synchronization Protection Summary, Information Resources
Section 4.1
Time Synchronization Basics
Objectives
Describe the historical evolution of time synchronization List main synchronization requirements Describe the network element synchronization modes
History - I.
Time synchronization might be needed for all digital voice communication networks On point-to-point links transmit and receive frequencies should be the same In synchronous multiplexing transmit and receive frequencies should be synchronized everywhere in the network, otherwise information might be lost In asynchronous multiplexing the multiplexers are independent from the timing of the multiplexed signals (PDH concept)
History - II.
SDH is quite different from PDH, since it uses synchronous multiplexing Beginning of 1990s, SDH is used mainly as point-to-point island, no synchronization with E1, direct replacement for asynchronous transport Middle of 1990s, SDH becomes time synchronized, using complex topologies, making pointer adjustments
Synchronization in Classical Voice Networks - I.

Network Clock (Stratum 1) 0.000001 ppm
CB
M14
LT
LT
M14 DS0 Switch
M14
LT
LT
M14
CB
VF
E1
E4
prop.
E4
E1
E1
E4
prop.
E4
E1
Transport Network
Switching Network
Transport Network
Synchronous DS0/E1 switching network (Stratum 1) Asynchronous transport network

Synchronization in Classical Voice Networks - II.

CB
M14
LT
LT
M14 DS0 Switch
M14
LT
LT
M14
CB
E1
E4 f1 20ppm
prop. f2 20ppm
E4
E1 f3 20ppm
E1
E4 f4 20ppm
prop. f5 20ppm
E4
E1 f6 20ppm
Asynchronous transport network uses pulse stuffing and is transparent to E1 timing

Synchronization Distribution
Dedicated Timing E1
CB
M14
LT
LT
M14 DS0 Switch
M14
LT
LT
M13
CB
E1
E4
prop.
E4
E1
E1
E4
prop.
E4
E1
20ppm 20ppm
Timing distribution is done using embedded E1 facility Asynchronous transport network is transparent to E1 timing
Initial SDH Deployments

CB
M14
SDH NE
SDH NE
M14 DS0 Switch
M14
LT
LT
M14
CB
E1
E4 f1 20ppm
STM-16 f2 20ppm
E4
E1 f3 20ppm
E1
E4 f4 20ppm
prop. f5 20ppm
E4
E1 f6 20ppm
SDH used in point-point configuration Direct replacement for async transport SDH terminals free-run at 20ppm. Not network synchronized. No pointer adjustments so no issues with E1/E4 mapping jitter !
Current SDH Deployments - I.

Network Clock (Stratum 1) ??? CB
STM-1 STM-1 STM-1 STM-1
0.000001 ppm
CB
DS0 Switch
E1 STM-16 E4 E1 E1 STM-4 E1
Questions: How do I time the SDH network ? Can I still just free run all my SDH NEs at 20ppm ? What is the impact of pointer adjustments ? How do I distribute timing to the CBs and DS0 switches ?
Current SDH Deployments - II.

Network Clock (Stratum 1)
BITS
0.000001 ppm
CB
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
CB
DS0 Switch
E1 STM-16 E1 STM-4 E1
All STM-N interfaces traceable to PRS to avoid excessive pointers Excessive pointers cause jitter/wander in embedded E1/E4 payloads Timing distributed to CB and DS0 switches directly via STM-N lines
Synchronization Requirements
Frequency variation of bits transmitted should be inside the limits determined by the next hops ability to transmit these bits further Stuffing allows for some limited tolerance Frequencies should be synchronized all over the network to guarantee a low level of BER Synchronization is done by recovering the embedded clock signal from the input signal Synchronization source should have a very precise clock (reference clock) Reference clock might be reached only by multiple hops Number of hops should be minimized
Synchronization and Timing Loops

Network Clock (Stratum 1)
BITS
0.000001 ppm
CB
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
CB
DS0 Switch
E1 E1 STM-4 E1
Fiber Cut
STM-16
Timing Loop Timing loops can be caused by either careless planning or fault conditions Timing loops cause unpredictable sync performance Elimination of timing loops was the driver for sync status messaging (SSM)
Synchronization Modes for Network Elements

Each network element has to be configured for time synchronization Time reference distribution should minimize delay Various timing alternatives: External Line Loop Through
External Timing
All signals transmitted from a node are synchronized to an external source received by that node; i.e. BITS timing source
BITS Network Element
W E S T
E A S T
Line Timing
All transmitted signals from a node are synchronized to one received signal
Network Element
W E S T
E A S T
Loop Timing
The transmit signal in a optical link, east or west, is synchronized to the received signal from the same optical link
Network Element
W E S T
E A S T
Through Timing
The transmit signal in one direction of transmission around the ring is synchronized to the received signal from that same direction of transmission
Network Element
W E S T
E A S T
Summary
Describe the historical evolution of time synchronization List main synchronization requirements Describe the network element synchronization modes
Review Questions
In general, why is synchronization needed? How is synchronization achieved in PDH networks? How is synchronization achieved in SDH networks?
Section 4.2
Synchronization Networks
Objectives
Identify the reference clock concept Describe clock distribution methods Describe the concept of using alternative clock sources Provide the basic design considerations for synchronization network design
Reference Clocks - I.
Precision of internal clock is classified into so called Stratum levels Accuracy is defined as the ratio of bit slip happening (causing a bit error) Stratum 1 => 1 x 10-11 (synchronization to atomic clock) Stratum 2 => 1.6 x 10-9 Stratum 3E => 1 x 10-6 Stratum 3 => 4.6 x 10-6 Stratum 4 => 32 x 10-6 (typical for IP routers) Accuracy level might decrease at each hop in clock distribution
Reference Clocks - II.

Originally providing Stratum 1 clocks for each network element was far from being economical, even providing this service at multiple locations was too much demanding So clock distribution methods were developed to minimize the number of high accuracy clocks needed in the network Global Positioning System (GPS) includes Stratum 1 atomic clocks on the satellites Recently cheap GPS receivers make it possible to have a Stratum 1 time source at almost any place Less need for time synchronization network (might even go away in the future)
Clock Distribution Methods - I.

External clock input might be used in case when all equipment is at the same location BITS = Building Integrated Timing Signal Uses an empty T1 or E1 framing to embed clock signal Root of the clock distribution tree Might be provided as a dedicated bus reaching into each rack in a CO environment BITS should be generated from a Stratum 1 clock Typically with a hot spare alternative source for fail-over
Clock Distribution Methods II.

Network elements not close to a BITS source should recover clock from the line Clock distribution should not have loops, so a tree distribution topology should be configured Typical carrier network element has Stratum 3 accuracy when running free By synchronization to the reference clock, this clock is running at the same rate as the reference clock (that is Stratum 1) Minimum requirement for any network element is 20 ppm (that is between Stratum 3 and Stratum 4)
Alternative Clock Sources - I.

If the trail to the reference clock source is lost, the network element still continues normal operation However, alarm might be generated After some time the clock might drift away so much, that bit errors would occur Some time is left for switching over to an alternative clock source The network element gets into a holdover state Requirement is to have less than 255 errors in 24 hours
Alternative Clock Sources - II.

A hierarchy of potential clock sources should be configured at each network element to achieve a highavailability operation Typically a maximum 3 alternative time reference sources might be configured Meaningful only if there are different paths to the alternative time reference sources If only one natural path exists to a single time reference source, then the path must be protected by automatic protection switching Requires some extra signaling to do it properly Called SPS = Synchronization Protection Switching
Summary
Identify the reference clock concept Describe clock distribution methods Describe the concept of using alternative clock sources Provide the basic design considerations for synchronization network design
Review Questions
What is the maximum allowed shift in frequency in a SDH network? What are the different methods of providing the master clock? What is the alternative to embedded clock distribution?
Section 4.3
Synchronization Protection
Objectives
Identify the basic concepts of synchronization protection Describe the operational steps in synchronization protection
Synchronization Protection Basics

Normal synchronization around a ring: Nodes B-F are line timed Node A is timed to an external reference In case of failure a new time source should be selected in a reasonable amount of time BER is increasing through time if synchronization is not restored
BITS A F B
E D
SPS Timing Loops

SPS = Synchronization Protection Switching During a ring failure, simple reference switching would result in timing loops
F BITS A B Fiber Cut E D
C Timing Loop
Operations Normal Flow

Synchronization messaging in normal operation S1 = Stratum 1 Traceable DU = Dont Use HO = Holdover
S1 E DU D DU S1 S1 F S1 DU DU C
BITS A DU Synch Msg = S1
S1
S1

Node C goes into short term holdover
BITS A HO F HO E DU D DU HO
S1 DU
S1 DU
S1 Fiber Cut
HO C Node C in Holdover
HO

Node F switches to timing from Node A
BITS A F S1 HO E DU D DU HO
S1 DU
DU S1
S1 Fiber Cut
HO C Node C in Holdover
HO
Operations Fiber Cut - III.

Ring is reconfigured and all nodes are again synchronized to BITS
DU F S1 DU S1 E S1 D DU
BITS A S1 DU S1
S1 Fiber Cut
C S1 DU
Node C comes out of Holdover
Summary
Identify the basic concepts of synchronization protection Describe the operational steps in synchronization protection
Review Questions
What kind of signaling is used to prevent timing loops? Does SPS work properly in a complex meshed network? How long is the Hold-over period in SPS?
Summary
Remember...
External timing: all signals transmitted from a node are synchronized to an external source received by that node; i.e. BITS timing source Line timing: all signals transmitted from a node are synchronized to one receive signal Loop timing: the transmit signal in a optical link, east or west, is synchronized to the received signal from the same optical link Through timing: the transmit signal in one direction of transmission around the ring is synchronized to the received signal from that same direction of transmission
Remember...
All network elements should be able to trace back clock synchronization to a single reference clock Synchronization messaging: messaging procedure that avoids timing loops when protection switching the synchronization source on a ring Messaging is based on bits in the S1 byte in the MS Overhead
Remember...
Synchronization protection switching is controlled by synchronization messages in bits 5-8 of the S1 byte in the SDH MS overhead, and is considered a MS switching function Synchronization protection switching is required for both BSHR/MS rings and USHR/P rings Short term holdover is defined as holdover during synchronization reconfiguration on the ring
Questions
?
Summary
Identify the main requirements for time synchronization Describe the main synchronization modes Describe the principles of network synchronization Describe the concept and operation of time synchronization protection
SONET versus SDH

Chapter 5
Objectives
Relate SONET and SDH concepts to each other Translate between SONET and SDH terminology Compare SONET and SDH terminology Describe the internetworking principles between SONET and SDH
Standardization - I.
First: many proprietary solutions In 1984 ECSA (Exchange Carriers Standards Association) started on SONET SONET became an ANSI standard Tuned to carry US PDH payloads Later CCITT created SDH as a superset Tuned to carry European and international PDH payloads including E4 (140 Mbit/s)
Standardization - II.
Divestiture Exchange Carriers Standards Associate (ECSA) T1 Committee Formed ANSI T1X1 Bellcore Proposed Approves SONET Principles Project To ANSI T1X1 1984 1985 CCITT Expresses Interest in SONET British and Japanese Participation in T1X1 CCITT XVIII Begins Study Group SONET/SDH Standards Approved
CEPT Proposes Merged ANSI/CCITT Standard
1986
1987
1988
SONET Concept Developed by Bellcore
More than 400 technical proposals Rate discussions AT&T vs. Bellcore International changes for byte/bit interleaving, frames, data rates Phase I, II, III, separate APS etc.
US T1X1 Accepts Modifications
ANSI Approves SYNTRAN
Synchronous TDM Hierarchy

SONET Synchronous Transport Signal STS-<n> electrical, OC-<n> optical SDH Synchronous Transport Module STM-<n>E electrical, STM-<n>O optical
SONET SDH Abbrev. Bit Rate Signal Channels Signal Channels speed DS1 DS1 E1 (Mbit/s) E1 (Gbit/s) 1 . 1 STS-1 11 1 1 1STM-1 1 1 1 1 11 STS-1 1. 1 1 1 1STM-1 1 1 1 1 11 STS-11 1 1 1 1. 1 1 1STM-1 11 1 1 1 1 . 1 STS-11 1 1 1 11 11 1 1STM-11 1 1 1 11 1 11 . 1 1 . 1 STS-111 5 5 1 1STM-11 1 1 1 1 11 55 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 11 STS-1111 1 1 1STM-1111 1 1 1 1. 111 1 1 1 11 1 1 1
Comparison of Technology
Both SONET and SDH use the same technology components All the differences might be implemented in software Still US based companies tend to be late in SDH implementations Mostly because of other customer environment related standards Privately SONET or SDH might be used Interfacing to public networks requires configuring the proper selection
Comparison of Hierarchy
Hierarchies aligned at 155 Mbit/s
2 ETSI PDH 1.5 US PDH VT1.5 SONET TU-12 SDH
34
140
Mbit/s
45 T3
Mbit/s
VT6
OC-1 52 AU-3
OC-3 OC-12 155 AU-4 622
OC-48 2488 STM-16
OC-192 9953 Mbit/s STM-64

TUG-2
STM-1 STM-4
Comparison of Framing
Same framing concept of using 9 rows STM-1 frame can be subdivided into 3 virtual STM-0 frames STM-0 frame compatible with STS-1 frame Multiplexing of STM and STS is the same Overhead byte interpretation is slightly different Based on different needs for PDH multiplexing and protection
Comparison of Payloads
Similar concepts, but significant differences in details of payload multiplexing
SONET
VT 1.5 (1) DS1 (4) 1.5 Mb/s
VT 6
STS-1
STS-3
OC-3
28 DS1s
84 DS1s
SDH VC-12
E1 2 Mb/s
(1) (3)
TUG
VC-3
AUG
STM-1
21 E1s
63 E1s
Comparison of Network Architectures

Similar layered architecture Slightly different terminology Regenerator section (SDH) = section (SONET) Multiplex section (SDH) = line (SONET) SDH defines high- and low-order paths, too
Comparison of Protection
SONET APS schemes are almost the same as SDH MPS and SNCP schemes Operations are practically the same APS protocol is equivalent Terminology is different UPSR (SONET) = USHR/P (SDH) BLSR (SONET) = BSHR/L (SDH)
Internetworking
Voice internetworking still requires conversion between -law and a-law Voice trunks can be accessed with a single step of demultiplexing SONET and SDH might carry each others PDH load, so the voice conversion point might be located flexibly anywhere inside the SONET or the SDH network Repacking PDH between SONET and SDH might be done in a single step by a single device Data internetworking is easy at STM-1 (STS-3) or higher since the payloads are the same size and structure
Summary
Relate SONET and SDH concepts to each other Translate between SONET and SDH terminology Compare SONET and SDH terminology Describe the internetworking principles between SONET and SDH
Review Questions
What is the major difference between SONET and SDH? Why does SONET start at a signaling rate of 51,84 Mbit/sec? Why does SDH start at a signaling rate of 155,52 Mbit/sec? What is the purpose of an STM-0 frame?
Questions
?
Chapter 6
Network Management
Objectives
Describe the basic network management functions needed in TDM networks Describe the architecture and main components of implementing network management solutions
Agenda
5.1 - Network Management Basics 5.2 - Network Management Internals Summary, Information Resources
Section 5.1
Network Management Basics
Objectives
Identify the main operational tasks Describe OAM functions and layers Describe the in-band network management channels
Operational Tasks - I.
Basic operational tasks: Protection Circuit recovery in milliseconds (so failure should not be detected by voice customers) Restoration Circuit recovery in seconds or minutes (done by manual configuration) Provisioning Allocation of capacity to preferred routes (according to certain time schedules) Configuration time is separated from activation time
Operational Tasks - II.

Consolidation Moving traffic from unfilled bearers onto fewer bearers to reduce waste trunk capacity Grooming Sorting of different traffic types from mixed payloads into separate destinations for each type of traffic
OAM Functions and Layers

Level 3 - Path Assembly and disassembly, cell delineation control Level 2 - Multiplex Section Loss of frame synchronization, degraded error performance Level 1 - Regenerator Section Loss of synchronization, signal quality degradation
Data Communication Channel (DCC)

DCC is a 192 kb/s in-band channel to facilitate communication between all Network Elements (NE) in a network Remote login, alarms reporting, software download, provisioning
Management Client Alarm and Event Forwarding OSS DCN GNE GNE GNE GNE Management Clients Management Server
TDM TDM
TDM
GNE GNE
SDH DCC
SDH DCC
ADM
SDH DCC
TDM
Network Operations Center
ADM
TDM
ADM
ADM
Summary
Identify the main operational tasks Describe OAM functions and layers Describe the in-band network management channels
Review Questions
What are the operational tasks of a Network Management System? What are the OAM functions needed for? What is the DCC channel used for?
Section 5.2
Network Management Internals
Objectives
Identify main requirements for network element management support Describe the typical management interfaces used to access network elements List management functions and features typically supported by network elements
Network Element Requirements

All network elements should support various management interfaces Local (craft terminal using TL1) Remote (TMN DCN model) All network elements should support certain management function areas FCAPS (fault, configuration, accounting, performance, security) Since original payload is voice, a separate management network is needed for remote management operations Data Communications Network (DCN)
Management Interfaces - I.
TMN Model as of M.3010
TMN
Reference point
OS
X F
WS
Q3/X/F DCN Q3 NE Q3 QA
Management Interfaces - II.

CMIP over OSI TMN Manager/Agent communication standard
Agent Element Manager Layer Mgr. CMIP/OSI Agent
Network Element Layer
Configuration Management Support

Installation Setting up basic parameters (identification, management access and authorization, etc.) Activating and testing hardware Provisioning Implementing add-drop commands Status and control APS switching messages for manual control
Performance Monitoring Support

Separate handling of section, line, path termination Performance data collection Error counts: B1, B2, B3 Historical data presentations Threshold settings Threshold crossing alerts (TCA) For B1, B2, B3 Performance data reporting Accuracy and resolution should be considered Typically 15-minute interval is the basis Monitoring should be done even in trouble conditions
Fault Management Support

Alarms surveillance Reactive mechanisms Autonomous and requested alarms Testing Alarm configuration
Alarm Hierarchy
LOS | LOF | LAIS => LRDI | | PAIS => PRDI | LOP
Accounting Support
In voice networks accounting support is implemented in toll switches In data networks accounting is supported by data link layer or network layer traffic data collection In general, neither voice networks, nor data networks transport on top of SDH require accounting support Transport network billing is not based on traffic, since bandwidth is allocated in fixed amounts Billing records might be generated by the OSS controlling the provisioning of paths Typically no requirement for accounting support in SDH network elements
Summary
Identify main requirements for network element management support Describe the typical management interfaces used to access network elements List management functions and features typically supported by network elements
Review Questions
What network management protocol is mainly used in telecommunication? What three functions does Fault Management support?
Summary
Questions
?
Summary
Describe the basic network management functions needed in TDM networks Describe the architecture and main components of implementing network management solutions
Network Management-266

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Chapter 1

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Link Structure and Line Interfaces

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Overhead Layer Concepts

regen. section REG ADM or DCS

regen. section termination

multipl. section termination

service (E1, E4..) mapping demapping

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Payload and Path Overhead

VC and MS Overhead STM-N Signal Light Pulse

Multiplex Section Regen. Section

Physical Layer - II.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Add-drop Multiplexer - II.

Wideband Digital Crossconnect

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Broadband Digital Crossconnect

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Subscriber Loop Access System

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Electrical and Optical Signals

Two-dimensional Frame Model

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

REG R-Section M-Section R-Section

REG R-Section R-Section

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Why are overhead channels distributed evenly in the bit stream?

Why are pointers needed to implement ring topologies?

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

Section overhead (SOH)

VC Capacity (for AUG)

Synchronous Payload Envelope - I.

Synchronous Payload Envelope - II.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

STM-1 VC-3 Capacity Structure

Path overhead (POH)

Path overhead Fixed stuff (POH)

STM-1 VC-4 Capacity Structure

Path overhead (POH)

9 Rows STM-1 Frame #2

STM-1 VC-3 or VC-4

STM-1 VC-3 or VC-4 POH column

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

2001, Cisco Systems, Inc.

9xN Columns STM-N VC capacity 9 Rows

125 sec Section Overhead

STS-Xc Payload Capacity (AU-4-Xc)