The Cell Theory

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
3. Living cells come only from other living cells.

The Cell Theory Timeline

1665 R. Hooke Discovered the cellular composition of cork.

Introduced the word cell to science.
1838 M. Schleiden Plants are made up of cells.
1839 T. Schwann Animals are made up of cells.
1855 R. Virchow “Omnis cellula e cellula.”
 Nuclear-transfer cloning

Nuclei from body cells + denucleated unfertilized egg

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Dolly, 1997 CC, 2001

Plasmodium causes malaria.
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A Bdelloids rotifer

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 The Molecules of a Cell

Small Molecules: adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Hormones
Neurotransmitters
etc….

Macromolecules Polysaccharides
Proteins
Nucleic acids
We Inherit mitochondria DNA from Mother
exclusively.

Man inherits Y chromosome from Father.

X- inactivation.
Genome Stability vs. Evolution

1. Somatic cells vs. germ-line cells

2. Point mutations vs. transposition
3. Gene duplication
Cellular Processes
 Cells Build and Degrade Numerous
Molecules and Structures

Chemical Energy -ATP : mitochondria, chloroplasts, plasma membrane of bacterial cells.

Degradation: lysosome (pH~5), peroxisome.

The secretory pathway: endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus.

Animal Cells Produce Their Own External
Environment and Glues

Collagens, proteoglycans,
soluble multiadhensive matrix proteins
Plants cells are rigidly tied together by extensive
interlocking of the cell walls of neighboring cells.

The cytosols of adjacent cells are connected by

plasmodesmata in higher plants.
Cells Change Shape and Move
Dictyostelium Amoebae Colony Aggregation

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Cells Sense and Send Information
Cells Regulate Their Gene Expression
to Meet Changing Needs
Cells Grow and Divide
Cells Die from Aggravated Assaults or an
Internal Program
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 Genetics Reveals the Consequences
of Altered Genes

Classical Genetics: Phenotypes → Genes

Mutagenesis → selection

Essential gene functions could be probed by temperature

sensitive mutants.

Reverse Genetics: Manipulated genes → Phenotypes

 A Genome Perspective on Evolution

1. Metabolic proteins, the genetic code, and organelle structures are nearly universal.

2. Many genes controlling development are remarkably similar in human and other animals.

3. Darwin’s ideas about the evolution of whole animals are relevant to genes.

4. Human medicine is informed by research on other organisms.

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Hydrophobic interactions are entropy-
driven and therefore are stronger at
higher temperatures.

△G = △H - T ·△S
 Chemical Equilibrium

A + B →C + D
Rate forward = kf [A][B]
Rate reverse = kr [C][D]

When in equilibrium

Rate forward = Rate reverse

Keq≡ kf / kr = [C]eq[D]eq / [A]eq[B]eq
PD ⇔ P + D
Kd = [P][D]/[PD]

Kd ~ 10 -9 -10 -10 for typical sequence-specific

DNA-binding proteins.

HA ⇔ H + A-
Ka = [H][A-] / [HA]
-log Ka = -log[H]-(log[A-]-log[HA])
pKa= pH - log ([A- ]/[HA])
pH=pKa+ log ([A- ]/[HA])

When [A- ]=[HA], pH=pKa

 Gibbs Free Energy

At constant temperature and pressure, all systems

change in such a way that G is minimized.

△G = △H - T ·△S < 0

An unfavorable chemical reaction can proceed if it is

coupled with an energetically favorable reaction.

A ↔ B + X △G = =+5 kcal/mol
X ↔ Y + Z △G = =- 10 kcal/mol

Sum: A ↔ B + Y + Z △G = =-5 kcal/mol

B + ATP → B~p + ADP
B~p + C → D + Pi

B + C + ATP → D + ADP + Pi ∆G < 0

C6H12O6 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

30 ATP’s
△G (cal/mole) = - n (23,064)△E (volts)

△E reduction potential
(affinity for electrons)