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CHAPTER 2

One – way Table


 One-way or frequency tables represent the simplest method for analyzing
categorical (nominal) data. Nominal Variables are variables which take on
one of a set of discrete values, such as Gender={Male, Female}.

 Example: Net New Workers, 1985-2000


 Category Percent
 --------------------------------------
 White women 42
 White men 15
 Nonwhite women 14
 Nonwhite men 7
 Immigrant women 9
 Immigrant men 13

 Obs. In general, the information in a table is mutually exclusive.


Two – way Table

 When only two variables are cross tabulated, we call the resulting table a
two-way table.

 Women Men Total


 ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 White | 42% 15% 57%
 Nonwhite | 14% 7% 21%
 Immigrant | 9% 13% 22%
 Total | 65% 35% 100%

 Question: Does adding across rows or columns give numbers that are
interpretable?
Venn Diagram
 One useful way of understanding the relations between sets is by using
Venn diagrams.

Women White Nonwhite

Women White
Venn Diagram
 SET OF NOTATION

 We have a set S, with elements S={1,2,3,4}. If A={1,2} and B={2,3,4}, then


A and B are subsets of S. The element 2 is an element of A.

 The union of A and B is the set consisting of all points is either A or B or in


both. A U B = {1,2,3,4}.
 If C={3} then A U C ={1,2,3}

 The intersection of A and B is the set consisting of all points that are both
in A and B. A ∩ B =AB= {2}.
 Therefore A ∩ C = Ø, the empty set, the set consisting of no points.

 The complement of A with respect to S, is the set of all points in S that are
not in A and is denoted Ā. Ā = {3,4}.
Venn Diagram

 Two sets are said to be mutually exclusive or disjoint, if they have no


points in common, as in A and C previously.

 We can observe that A U Ā = S

 Distributive Laws: A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)
 A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)

 De Morgan’s Laws: AUB=A ∩ B

 A ∩B =AUB
Venn Diagram
 Example:

 Twenty electric motors are pulled from an assembly line and inspected for
defects. Eleven motors are free of defects, eight have defects on the
exterior finish and three have defects in their assembly and will not run. Let
A denote the set of motors having assembly defects and F the set having
defects on their finish. Using A and F, write a symbolic notation for the
following. Then give the number of motors in each set.

 A) the set of motors having both types of defects


 B) the set of motors having at least one type of defect
 C) the set of motors having no defects
 D) the set of motors having exactly one type of defect
A={set of motors having assembly defects} and
F={set of motors having defects on their finish}

 a) Motors with both types of defects must be in A and F, therefore in A ∩


F.
Since only 9 motors have defects, while A contains 3 and F contains 8 motors,
2 motors must be in A ∩ F.

b) The motors having at least one type of defect must have either an assembly
or a finish defect. Therefore, this is written as A U F. Since we have 20
motors and 11 are free of defects, the answer here is 9.

c) Motors having no defects are 11. This can be written as ¯AUF .

d) Motors with exactly one type of defect are in either A or either B, not in
both. This is written as A U F – A ∩ F or ¯A ∩ F U ¯F ∩ A . The answer
is 7 motors.
HOMEWORK

 2.13
2.4 Definition of Probability

 A sample space S is a set that includes all possible outcomes for a random
selection from a specified population, listed in a mutually exclusive
(elements do not overlap) and exhaustive manner (the list contains all
possible outcomes).

 For a die toss: S={1,2,3,4,5,6}

 For a coin toss: S={H,T}

 S={x | x > 2} – all real numbers x, such that x >2.

 An event is any subset of a sample space.

 When tossing a die:


 E ={4} E={1,2,3}
2.4 Definition of Probability

 Using a Venn diagram display the following events and sample space:

 In the die-tossing experiment let us define:

 A – to be “an odd number”


 B – to be “ an even number”
 C – to be “a number less than 4”
 E – to be “observe a 6”
 S – to be “the sample space foe tossing a die”

 Every time a die is tossed one of the integers 1,2,3,4,5,6 must occur, so the
total probability associated with the sample space must be 1.

 How many times should a “4” occur, if the six outcomes occur with the same
likelihood?
2.4 Definition of Probability
 Definition: Suppose a random number from a specified population has
associated with it a sample space S. A probability is a numerically valued
function that assigns a number P(A) to every event A so that the following
axioms hold:

 1. P(A) ≥ 0
 2. P(S) =1
 3. If A1, A2 … is a sequence of mutually exclusive events (that is Ai Aj = Ø for
any i≠ j), then

 P(Ui=1∞ Ai) = ∑i=1∞ P(Ai)

 If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, then P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B).

 If A is a subset of B, then P(A) ≤ P(B). Explain!


2.4 Definition of Probability

 If a die is balanced, we could toss it a few times to see if the upper faces all
seem equally likely to occur.

 We could simply assume this would happen and assign probability 1/6 to
each of the six elements in S as follows: P(Ei)=1/6, i=1,2…6.

 Calculate the following:

 P (of getting an even number)


 P (of getting an odd number)
 P (of getting a number less than 5)
2.4 Definition of Probability

 In 1956 the Bureau of Labor Statistics provided the following information:


32% are married men, 37% are single, 16% are married women and the rest
are widowed or divorced. In 1982, the situation is as follows: 25% are
married men, 42% are single, 18% are married women and the rest are
widowed or divorced.

 Represent graphically the two situations.


 If we choose a person from 1956, what is the probability of selecting
 A) a married woman
 B) a single person
 C) a married person
 D) a person that is not married

 Answer the same questions for a person from 1982.


Answer
 a) P(married woman) = 0.16
 b) P (single)= 0.37
 c) P(married) = P(married woman) + P( married man) = 0.16+0.32=0.48
HOMEWORK

 2.18

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