Chemistry

The study of the composition, structure & properties of materials & the changes they undergo.

6 Branches of Chemistry
Analytical: composition, separation & identification of materials.
Quantitative - measurements Qualitative - describe w/out measurements

Organic: C comps. Inorganic: everything other than C comps.

6 Branches of Chemistry-cont.
Physical: physical props of materials & rxn mechanisms Biochemistry: materials & processes in living things Nuclear: subatomic particles & nuclear rxns

Scientific Method
1) Observing
State the facts; dont infer

2) Hypothesizing
Classify, categorize Temporary explanation

3) Theorizing
Repeatedly tested model

4) Testing
Validate, modify or discard theory

5) Law
Summarizes broad spectrum of experiments & observations

Matter- anything th takes up space & has mass

Substance - a particular kind of matter w/ a constant composition:
Elements & compounds
Element - simplest form of matter; 1 kind of atom
118 natural 26 man-made Metals > 80; left side of P-table Good conductors, sonorous, lustrous, high melting pts Malleable: hammer into shapes Ductile: draw into wires Nonmetals ~ 20; right side of table Good insulators; 11 gases; low melting pts. Brittle solids

The type and the arrangement of particles determines the properties of the chemical.

Melting Point Density

Boiling Point Color

Malleability

Conductivity

Matter- cont.
Compounds- composed of more than 1 kind of atom joined together chemically; always in definite ratios

Mixtures - a blend of 2 or more substances ea of wh retains its own identity

Homogeneous (solutions) : uniform throughout; 1 phase Heterogeneous: more than 1 phase with definite boundaries
Immiscible mixtures : 2 liquids Suspensions : a liquid & solid

Evidence of Particles
Diffusion - spontaneous spreading of particles until evenly distributed
[HIGH] -> [LOW]

Brownian Motion - random motion of particles due to their bombardment by molecular particles

States of Matter- properties relate to kinetics

Solids
Definite shape & volume Particles in fixed, tight pattern Strong attractive forces Particles vibrate in place

Liquids
Definite volume: take shape of container Particles move: slide or flow Weaker attractive forces

States of Matter- cont.

Gases
Take shape & volume of container Particles are rapidly moving Almost no attractive forces > 99.9% empty space!!!

Solid, Liquid & Gases

& Plasma

Bose-Einstein Condensate
What is temperature anyway???
Measurement of average kinetic energy of a system! Hot = high KE = fast moving particles Cold = low KE = slow moving particles

Absolute Zero (Kelvin vs Celsius)

0C = 273 K Absolute Zero = 0 K

Quantum Blob
Particles are fuzzy and begin to overlap quantum mechanics

Changes of State
Phase changes = kinetic E changes
Melting - ^ heat = ^ kinetic E = ^ vibration
Particles expand Weaker attraction -> slide, flow

Boiling - More E = faster movement

Overcome attractive forces Escape as gas

Evaporation - at temps. below boiling pt.

Some particles have enough E to escape Get heat fr surroundings

Changes of State -cont.

Condensing & solidifying cooling = decreased E Particles slow down Attractive forces take over -> solid forms

Compressing a gas ^ pressure & decrease space When particles are close enough, attraction pulls them into a liquid state

Changes of State -cont.

Sublimation Solid -> gas i.e. dry ice, iodine, snow

Deposition Gas -> solid

Melting & Boiling Pts

Characteristic for a sub Indicate purity

Kelvin Temp Scale

Provides a direct measure of the average kinetic E
K = Celsius + 273

Chem vs. Physical Change

Physical change - state changes; cutting, pounding, pulling, dissolving
** no new subs. formed

Chemical change - sub undergoes a change:

1 or more new subs form w/ diff characteristics Signs of a chemical change:
1. 1 or more new subs. 2. E taken in or given off:
Exothermic - E released Endothermic - E taken in

3. Not easily reversible

Exo: Outside
A reaction in which energy is released Gets HOT or give off LIGHT

Examples: Burning wood, Bomb (non-nuclear)

Endo: within
Reaction where energy is absorbed
Gets COLD Example: Ice Packs (NH4NO3)

Chemical Reactions
Reactants -> (change to or yield) Products Activation energy - min. amt. of E to start a chemical rxn Catalyst - a chem sub th speeds up a rxn w/out being consumed
Decreases activation E Often a transition metal Place over arrow in an equation

Energy needed to start a reaction

Match starts with a spark, but a piece of paper needs a match and a wooden log start with burning paper. Therefore, each activation energy is different.

Collision Theory
The more successful collisions (right E & orientation), the more products produced!

Law of Conservation of Matter & Energy

Neither matter of E is created in a chemical rxn, but rather it is transformed.
E can be heat, light, electrical, kinetic, etc.

Separating Mixtures
Separating Solids fr Liquids - for suspensions
Filtering Centifuging Evaporating the solvent Crystallizing - evaporate some solvent & cool; solute will ppt. out

Separating Mixtures -cont.

Separating a Mix of 2 Solids:
Dissolve 1 Filter suspension Evaporate

Separate solvent fr soln:

Simple distillation - heat to boiling & evaporate; solid left behind; collect condensation

Separating Mixtures -cont.

Separating 2 Liquids:
Separating funnel - for immiscible mixtures
Separates into layers based on density Tap off different layers

Fractional distillation - for miscible mixtures

Heat to boiling pt. of 1 sub; evaporate & condense i.e crude oil

Separating Mixtures -cont.

Separating a mixture of Colored Subs:
Paper chromatography
Mixture = mobile phase wh is allowed to pass over a stationary phase
Polarity separates: Slowest moving = more attraction for stationary phase Fastest moving = least attraction

Solutions (homo mixtures)

2 parts to a solution:
Solute - in lesser amount Solvent - in greater amount Universal Solvent - water!

Unsaturated - a soln th is able to dissolve more solute Saturated - added soluted will not dissolve
^ temp = ^ amount of dissolving

Supersaturated - contains more solute than a sat soln can normally hold
Very unstable- tends to precipitate (ppt) excess solute

Solubility
Depends on temp. Solubility - max. amt of a sub th will dissolve in 100g of water at a specified temp ** varies widely for diff subs. For solids: generally solubility ^ w/ ^ temp Calculating Solubility - expressed as --g/100 g of water at --- temp.

Solubility - cont.
Solubility Curves
Graph of solubility (g/100 gH2O) vs. Temp Find solubility at various temps

Solubility of Gases (in liquids)

*** Solubility decreases w/ increasing temp Thermal pollution

Other Solvents
Alcohol, acetone, gasoline, trichlorethane, etc. Volatile - evaporate easily at room temp ** flammable & toxic