MAW 1 7 53 : ADVANCED ROCK MECHANICS & ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Chapter 1.0: Introduction to engineering geology Chapter 2.0: Rock classification Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks Chapter 3.0: Weathering & soils Chapter 4.0: Geological structures & discontinuities in rock. Chapter 5.0: Ground Investigation.

ROCK FAMILY Material origin Environment Rock texture Rock structure Rock strength Major types

IGNEOUS Crystalline from molten magma In earth crust; & as lava flow Mosaic of interlocking crystals Non-bedded (structureless) Uniform high strength Granite, basalt, pumice

SEDIMENTARY Erosional debris on Earths surface Deposition basins; mainly sea Mostly granular and cemented Layered, bedding planes Variable, low; planar weaknesses Sandstone, limestone, shale

METAMORPHIC Altered by heat and/or pressure Mostly deep inside mountain chains Mosaic of interlocking crystals Crystal orientation due to pressure Variable high; planar weaknesses Schist, slate, gneiss, quatzite

Table 2.4: Rock classification [Waltham, 2002].

Sedimentary Rocks: Surface processes are essential for the formation of sedimentary rocks. Sediment is largely material derived from the weathering of rocks on the earths surface. All rocks weather on exposure to atmosphere (water & air), & slowly breaks down to form in situ soils weathering processes. The land is essentially the erosional environment; it is the source of sediments, which forms the temporary soils before being transported away.

Land as erosional environment rocks are being weathered to sediments & transported to depositional environment

Surface processes: The sea is essentially the depositional environment, sediment is buried beneath subsequent layers, & eventually forms most of the sedimentary rocks. In most land environments, the in situ soils subsequently transported away from its source, & may then be as sediment; this include the solid debris particles & material in solution in water. Natural transport processes are dominated by water (river & sea) glaciers & wind.

Sea as depositional environment transported sediments are gradually being deposited when the energy of the transportation agents starts to weaken

Granite rock is weathered to granitic residual soils (a sediment consist of gravel, sand & clays) & will eventually transported & deposited in suitable depositional areas (river beds, beaches & oceans)

Surface processes: Transportation agent like water can sort & selectively deposits it sediment load (boulders, gravels, sands, silts & clays). Ultimately all sediment is deposited, mostly in the sea, & mostly as stratified layers/beds. Burial of this loose & unconsolidated sediment, by more layers of material subsequently deposited on top, eventually turns it into sedimentary rock, by the various process of lithification.

Environment of deposition of clastic sedimentary rocks

Lithification: Lithification a process by which a weak loose sediment is turned into a stronger sedimentary rock. The results of litihification, notably the increase in strength, are referred to as consolidation. 3 main processes of lithification are: Cementation, by cement matrix like silica (strongest), iron oxides, calcite & clay (weakest). Recrystallisation, small scale solution & deposition of minerals Compaction, restructuring & change of grain packing with decreasing volume.

Void spaces, shape & grain size of sedimentary rock. This is similar to cementing of sand & gravel by OPC as in concrete. The presence of cement matrix reduces the void spaces.

Depositional structures in sedimentary rock

SEDIMENTARY MATERIALS. Most sedimentary rocks are varieties of sandstone, clays/shales & limestone. Mineral grains: mostly quartz, also muscovite (the physically & chemically stable minerals. Rock fracgments & volcanic debris (not yet broken down to their constituent minerals). Breakdown products: clay minerals (fromed by reaction of water with feldspar or mafic minerals). Organic debris: plant material to form peat & coal (animal soft parts form oil). Organic debris: dominated by clacite from marine shell debris. Solutes: dominantly calcite precipated from sea water largely due to biological activity. Solutes: including gypsum & salt & other less abundant soluble compounds. SANDSTONES

CLAYS & SHALES minor rocks

LIMESTONES

minor rocks

Table 2.8: Rock classification [Waltham, 2002].

Classification of sedimentary rocks: Depending on mode of origin, are divided into: CLASTIC & NON-CLASTIC. The non-clastic can further classified as CARBONATE (organic) & NONCARBONATE (chemical). Clastic Sedimentary rock can be sub-divided based on size of mineral grains: Rudaceous: grain size > 2 mm. Arenaceous: grain size 2mm 0.06 mm. Argillaceous: grain size < 0.06 mm. Common clastic sedimentary rocks are conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, siltstone, shale & mudstone.

A. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 1. RUDACEOUS: coarse grained Grain size > 2 mm. Conglomerate rounded fragments. Breccia angular fragments. 2. ARENACEOUS: medium grained Grain size between 0.06 2 mm. Sandstone & allied rocks. 3. ARGILLACEOUS: fine grained Grain size < 0.06 mm. Siltstone quartz particles. Shales, clays, mudstone & allied rock.

B. NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 1. CARBONATES (Organic) Consisting mainly of clacite. Limestone & allied rocks. 2. NON-CARBONATES (chemical) Flint & chert nodular or banded silica. Coal & lignite lithified peat & plant material. Ironstone any iron-rich sedimentary rock; sand, clay or oolite texture. Salt & gypsum monomineralic rocks deposited by evaporation of water.

Table 2.9: Classification of sedimentary rock [Waltham, 2002]

Table 2.10: Classification of sedimentary rocks (more detailed)

Conglomerate clastic sedimentary rock (grain size > 2 mm, rudaceous)

Sandstone clastic sedimentary rock (grain size 0.06 2 mm, arenaceous)

Siltstone clastic sedimentary rock (grain size > 0.06 mm, arenaceous (argillaceous?))

Shale clastic sedimentary rock (grain size < 0.06 mm, argillaceous)

Coquina (a type of limestone) consists of cemented marine shell fragments

Classification of sedimentary rocks: Carbonate (organic) sedimentary rocks originates from deposits of organic materials (plants, animals bones & shells. Coal & peat is sediments originates from accumulation of plants & vegetations in swampy environment. Deposits of iron produces sedimentary rocks rich in Fe, example magnetite.

Magnetite organic sedimentary rock

Classification of sedimentary rocks: Deposition & accumulation of siliceous materials (e.g. coral) leads to formation of chert & limestone. Accumulation of calcareous materials (remnants of organism) produces chalk & dolomite. Accumulation phosphoric materials like guano (tahi kelawar) produces phosphate.

Chert organic sedimentary rock

Limestone organic sedimentary rock (calcareous)

Dolomite organic sedimentary rock (calcareous)

Coal organic sedimentary rock (carbonaceous)

Graphite organic sedimentary rock (carbonaceous)

Successive stages in the formation of high grade coal - anthracite

Classification of sedimentary rocks: Non-carbonate (chemical) sedimentary rocks are formed in depositional environment where chemical processes like precipitation & concentration of mineral solution can take place. Example high rate of evaporation of sea water in protected beaches (e.g. existing of lagoon & sandbars) will produce rock salt (Na Cl). Common non-carbonate sedimentary rocks are gypsum, chloride, limonite & hematite.

Hematite non-carbonate (chemical) sedimentary rock (concentration of Fe)

Gypsum non-carbonate (chemical) sedimentary rock (concentration of sulphate)

Limonite non-carbonate (chemical) sedimentary rock (concentration of Fe)

Cross-section of London Basin shows varieties of sedimentary rock, each with different engineering problem

Sedimentary rocks: Most common sedimentary rocks are limestone, sandstone, mudstone & shale. Limestone: Type is sedimentary, organic or chemical carbonate. Grains are variable sized calcite mosaic, usually with shell fragments. Mineral content mainly calcite 95%, dolomite 3% & clay minerals 2%.

Limestone: Soluble in rainwater, leaving minimal or no soil (solid debris, like sand & clay), and allowing formation of open fissures, sink holes & caves. Forms distinctive karst landscape with underground drainage. Older limestone are more completely recrystallised & stronger; UCS 20 - 100 MPa, SBP 0.4 - 4 MPa. As foundations it is extremely variable; strong rock with fissures & cavities. May shear along thin shale bed.

Topographic view of granite hills

Topographic view of limestone hills

Limestone: Valuable dimension & aggregate stones, burn with clay to make cement. Varieties include oolite, chalk & dolomite. Sandstone: Type is sedimentary, clastic, arenaceous. Mineralogy consists medium grained with sand grains mostly of quartz, set in cement of quartz (siliceous), calcite, clay & other minerals.

Sandstone: Mineralogy mainly quartz 80%, clay minerals 10% & others 10%. Weathering strength; mainly crumbled to sand, forming sandy well-drained soils. Older sandstones tend to be better cemented & stronger. Clay cements are notably weak; quartz cement are generally strong. UCS 10 90 MPa, SBP 1 4 MPa. As foundation it is generally strong material, unless poorly cemented or with weak cement.

Sandstone: Value: most sandstones abrade too easily for use as aggregate; some may yield good dimension stone. Varieties include grit, greywacke & tuff. Mudstone (clay): Sedimentary, clastic, argillaceous. Texture is fine grained structureless mass of clay minerals. Mineralogy: illite 60%, kaolinite 20%, smectite 10%.

Clay: Weathering: reverts to mud forming heavy clay soils. Older, more lithified & unweathered clays have higher strength. Younger clays have properties transitional to those of low strength soils. UCS 1 20 MPa, SBP 0.1 1 MPa. As foundation it is weak material with low, variable strength depending on water content; prone to slow creep & plastic deformation; high potential compaction may cause high & differential settlement under structural load. Value: watertight fill, bricks & cement. Varieties: mudstone, shale, marl & siltstone.

 Environment of deposition of sedimentary rocks clearly shown the varieties of rocks that may be formed, that are different in terms of types, texture & properties. These changes may take place in a very short distance (vertically & horizontally). These changes must be understood before structures are constructed in/on sedimentary rocks, so that appropriate design, method of construction & any ground improvement can be implemented. Changes in types of sedimentary rock can be abrupt (vertically & horizontally) thus, a structure can stand on more than one rock type. London Basin is typical example.