Chopper 2003

Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 3-2003)

Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
1

Chapter 3

DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
General
Buck converter
Boost converter
Buck-Boost converter
Switched-mode power supply
Bridge converter
Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.

DC-DC Converter
(Chopper)
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled DC output with a desired
voltage level.

General block diagram:

LOAD
V
control
(derived from
feedback circuit)
DC supply
(from rectifier-
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)
DC output
APPLICATIONS:
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
3
Linear regulator
Transistor is operated
in linear (active)
mode.

Output voltage

The transistor can be
conveniently
modelled by an
equivalent variable
resistor, as shown.

Power loss is high at
high current due to:
L ce o
T L o
I V P
R I P
=
=
or

2
+
V
o
R
L
+ V
CEce

I
L
LINEAR REGULATOR
RT
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
V
in
R
L
+ V
ce

I
L
V
in
V
o
+
ce in o
V V V =
4
Switching Regulator
Transistor is operated
in switched-mode:
Switch closed:
Fully on (saturated)
Switch opened:
Fully off (cut-off)

When switch is open,
no current flow in it
When switch is
closed no voltage
drop across it.

Since P=V.I, no losses
occurs in the switch.
Power is 100%
transferred from
source to load.
Power loss is zero
(for ideal switch):

Switching regulator is
the basis of all DC-DC
converters
+
V
o
R
L
+ V
ce

I
L
SWITCHING REGULATOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
V
in
R
L
I
L
V
in
V
o
+
(ON)
closed
(OFF)
open
(ON)
closed
DT T
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
V
o
SWITCH
V
in
5
Buck (step-down) converter
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
+
V
o
V
o
+
CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED
V
o
+
i
L
V
d D
R
L
S
V
d
D
R
L
S
+
v
L
+
v
L

i
L
6
Switch is turned on (closed)
Diode is reversed
biased.

Switch conducts
inductor current

This results in
positive inductor
voltage, i.e:

It causes linear
increase in the
inductor current

o d L
V V v =
}
=
=
dt v
L
i
dt
di
L v
L L
L
L
1
V
d V
D
+ v
L
-
C
R
L
+
V
o
V
d
V
o
V
o
closed
opened
closed
opened
t
DT
T
t
i
Lmin
i
Lmax
I
L
v
L
i
L
i
L
+
S
7
Switch turned off (opened)
Because of inductive
energy storage, i
L
continues to flow.

Diode is forward
biased

Current now flows
(freewheeling)
through the diode.

The inductor voltage
can be derived as:

o L
V v =
V
d
+ v
L
-
C
R
L
+
V
o
V
d
V
o
V
o
closed
opened
closed
opened
t
DT T
t
i
Lmin
i
Lmax
I
L
v
L
i
L
i
L
S
D
(1-D)T
8
Analysis
( )
( ) T D
L
V
i
L
V
T D
i
t
i
dt
di
L
V
dt
di
dt
di
L V v
DT
L
V V
i
L
V V
DT
i
t
i
dt
di
i
i
L
V V
dt
di
dt
di
L V V v
o
opened
L
o L L L
o L
L
o L
o d
closed
L
o d L L L
L
L
o d L
L
o d L
) 1 (
) 1 (
opened, switch For
Figure From
linearly. increased
must herefore constant.T
positive a is of Derivative
: (on) closed is switch When the

|
.
|
\
|
= A
A
=
A
A
=
=
= =
|
.
|
\
|

= A
=
A
=
A
A
=
=
= =
I
L
i
L max
DT T
i
L
V
d
V
o
v
L
t
t
i
L min
closed
Ai
L
9
Steady-state operation
( ) ( )
d o
s
o
s
o d
opened
L
closed
L
L
L
DV V
T D
L
V
DT
L
V V
i i
i
i
=
=
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|

= A + A
0 ) 1 (
0
: i.e zero, is period one over of
change the is That cycle. next the of begining
at the same the is cycle switching of end
at the that requires operation state - Steady
i
L
Unstable current
Decaying current
Steady-state current
t
t
t
i
L
i
L
10
min max
min
max
L
: ripple current Inductor
2
) 1 ( 1
2
: current Minimum
2
) 1 ( 1
) 1 (
2
1
2
: current Maximum
R in current Average current inductor Average
I I i
Lf
D
R
V
i
I I
Lf
D
R
V
T D
L
V
R
V i
I I
R
V
I I
L
o
L
L
o
o o L
L
o
R L
= A
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
A
+ =
= =
=
Average, Maximum and
Minimum Inductor Current
I
L
I
max
I
min
i
L
Ai
L
t
11
Continuous Current Mode (CCM)
min
min
min
min
be b chosen is Normally
operation. of mode continous ensure
current to inductor minimum the is This
2
) 1 (
0
2
) 1 ( 1
, 0 operation, continuous For
2
) 1 ( 1
2
analysis, previous From
L L
R
f
D
L L
Lf
D
R
V
I
Lf
D
R
V
i
I I
o
o
L
L
>>
= >
> |
.
|
\
|
>
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
=
i
L
I
max
I
min
t
0
12
Output voltage ripple
size. capacitor Increasing 3)
size inductor Increasing 2)
frequency switching Increasing 1)
: by reduced be can Ripple : Note
8
) 1 (
factor, ripple the So,
8
) 1 (
8
peak) to - (Peak voltage Ripple
8
2 2 2
1
: formula area triangle Use
: as witten be can charge The
: current Capacitor KCL,
2
2
LCf
D
V
V
r
LCf
D
C
i T
V
i T
i T
Q
C
Q
V
V C Q
CV Q
i i i
o
o
L
o
L
L
o o
o
R L c
=
A
=
=
A
= A
A
=
|
.
|
\
|
A
|
.
|
\
|
= A
A
= A
A = A
=
+ =
i
L
i
L
=I
R
i
max
i
min
0
0
V
o
+
V
o
/R
i
R
L
i
L
i
C
i
C
13
Basic design procedures
V
d
(input
spec.)
SWITCH
f = ?
D = ?
TYPE ?
D
L
L
min
= ?
L = 10L
min
C
ripple ?
R
L
P
o
= ?
I
o
= ?
Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device
preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise
higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can
reach MHz range.
Calculate L
min
. Choose L>>10 L
min

Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
Capacitor ratings:
must withstand peak output voltage
must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for
triangular w/f is I
p
/3, where I
p
is the peak capacitor current given
by Ai
L
/2.
ECAPs can be used

Wire size consideration:
Normally rated in RMS. But i
L
is known as peak. RMS value
for i
L
is given as:

2
2
,
3
2
|
.
|
\
|
A
+ =
L
L RMS L
i
I I
14
Examples
A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given
L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4.
Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.

A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of
25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is
125W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value of L to limit the
peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.

Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V
when the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter
such that it will be in continuous current mode. The output
voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the
frequency and the values of each component. Suggest the power
switch also.
15
Boost (step-up) converter
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
+ v
L
+
V
o
+ v
L
-
V
o
+
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
V
o
+
i
L
16
Boost analysis:switch closed
( )
L
DT V
i
L
V
dt
di
DT
i
t
i
dt
di
L
V
dt
di
dt
di
L
V v
d
closed
L
d L
L L L
d L
L
d L
= A
=
A
=
A
A
=
=
=
=

DT T
i
L
v
L
CLOSED
t
t
V
d
V
d
V
o
Ai
L
V
d
L
D
C
S
+ v
L
i
L
+
v
o

17
Switch opened
( )
( )
L
DT V V
i
L
V V
dt
di
T D
i
t
i
dt
di
L
V V
dt
di
dt
di
L
V V v
o d
opened
L
o d L
L
L L
o d L
L
o d L
) 1 (

) 1 (

= A
A
=
A
A
=
=
=
=
DT T
( 1-D )T
i
L
v
L
OPENED
t
t
V
d
V
d
V
o
Ai
L
V
d
D
C
S
+ v
L
-
i
L
+
v
o
-
18
Steady-state operation
( ) ( )
( )
D
V
V
L
T D V V
L
DT V
i i
d
o
o d d
opened
L
closed
L
=
=

+
= A + A
1
0
) 1 (
0
Boost converter produces output voltage that is
greater or equal to the input voltage.
Alternative explanation:
when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.
19
Average, Maximum, Minimum
Inductor Current
L
DT V
R D
V i
I I
L
DT V
R D
V i
I I
R D
V
I
R D
V
R
D
V
I V
R
V
I V
d d L
L
d d L
L
d
L
d
d
L d
o
d d
2
) 1 (

2
: current inductor Minimum
2
) 1 (

2
: current inductor Maximum
) 1 (
: current inductor Average
) 1 (
) 1 (
power Output power Input
2
min
2
max
2
2
2
2
2
=
A
=
+
=
A
+ =
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
20
L and C values
( )
( )
RCf
D
V
V
r
RCf
D V
RCf
DT V
V
V C DT
R
V
Q
f
R D D
TR D D
L
L
DT V
R D
V
I
o
o
o o
o
o
o
d d
=
A
=
= = A
A =
|
.
|
\
|
= A
=
>
>
factor Ripple
2
1
2
1
0
2
) 1 (
0
CCM, For
2
2
min
2
min
I
max
I
min
I
min
I
max
i
c
i
D
i
L
V
d
v
L
V
d
V
o
I
o
=V
o
/ R
DT T
AQ
21
Examples
The boost converter has the following parameters: V
d
=20V,
D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, f
s
=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.

Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V
from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching
frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.
22
Buck-Boost converter
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
R
L
+
V
o
V
o
+
CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER
V
o
+
i
L
V
d
v
L
+
i
L
V
d
v
L
+
D
D
S
S
23
Buck-boost analysis
DT T
I
min
I
max
i
c
i
D
i
L
V
d
v
L
AQ
V
d
V
o
I
o
=V
o
/ R
I
max
I
min
L
T D V
i
L
V
T D
i
t
i
L
V
dt
di
dt
di
L V v
L
DT V
i
L
V
DT
i
t
i
L
V
dt
di
dt
di
L Vd v
o
opened L
o L L
o L
L
o L
d
closed L
d L L
d L
L
L
) 1 (
) (
) 1 (
opened Switch
) (
closed Switch
= A
=
A
=
A
A
=
= =
= A
=
A
=
A
A
=
= =
24
Output voltage
NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be
higher or lower than input.
If D>0.5, output is higher than input
If D<0.5, output is lower input

Output voltage is always negative.

Note that output is never directly connected to load.

Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed
and transferred to load when switch is opened.
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
+
= A + A
D
D
V
L
T D V
L
DT V
s
o d
opened iL closed iL
1
V
: tage Output vol
0
) 1 (
0
: operation state Steady
o
) ( ) (
25
Average inductor current
2
2
2
2
) 1 (
, for ng Substituti
: as current inductor average
to related is current source average But
i.e. source, by the supplied power
equal must load by the absorbed power
converter, in the loss power no Assuming
D R
D V
D V
P
RD V
V
I
V
D I V
R
V
D I I
I V
R
V
P P
d
d
o
d
o
L
o
L d
o
L s
s d
o
s o
= = =
=
=
=
=
26
L and C values
RCf
D
V
V
r
RCf
D V
RC
DT V
V
V C DT
R
V
f
R D
L
L
DT V
D R
D
L
DT V
D R
D V i
I I
L
DT V
D R
D V i
I I
o
o
o o
o
o
o
d
d d L
L
d d L
L
=
A
=
= = A
A =
|
.
|
\
|
= A
=
= +
=
A
=
+
=
A
+ =
Q
ripple, tage Output vol
2
) 1 (
0
2
) 1 (
V
CCM For
2
) 1 (
2
2
) 1 (
2
current, inductor min and Max
2
min
2
d
2
min
2
max
27
Converters in CCM: Summary
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
+
V
o
f
R D
L
LCf
D
V
V
D
V
V
o
o
d
o
2
) 1 (
8
1
Buck
min
2
=
A
=
f
R D D
L
RCf
D
V
V
D V
V
o
o
d
o
2
) 1 (
1
1
Boost
2
min
=
=
A

=
f
R D
L
RCf
D
V
V
D
D
V
V
o
o
d
o
2
) 1 (
1
Boost Buck
2
min
=
=
A

=
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
+
V
o
V
d
L
D
C
R
L
S
+
V
o

28
Control of DC-DC converter:
pulse width modulation (PWM)
Comparator
V
control
Sawtooth
Waveform
V
o
(desired)
V
o
(actual)
+
-
Switch control
signal
Sawtooth
Waveform
V
control 1
Switch
control
signal
t
on 2
T
V
control 2
t
on 1
29
Isolated DC-DC Converter
Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer
Two types: Linear and Switched-mode

Advantages of switched mode over linear power
supply
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction

Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems

However above certain ratings,
SMPS is the only feasible choice

Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)

30
Linear and SMPS block diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
Basic Block diagram of SMPS
Base/gate
Drive
Error
Amp.
Line
Input
| | 3 / 1
50/60 Hz
Isolation
Transformer
Rectifier/
Filter
+
V
d
-
V
ce
=V
d
-V
o
C
E
B
V
o
V
ref
R
L
+V
o
+
Vo
-
DC Unregulated
DC Regulated
EMI
FILTER
RECTIFIER
AND
FILTER
High
Frequency
rectifier
and
filter
Base/
gate
drive
PWM
Controller
error
Amp
V
o
V
ref
DC
Regulated
DC-DC CONVERSITION AND
ISOLATION
DC
Unregulated
31
High frequency transformer
: Models
;
ip relationsh output - input Basic
voltage varying - me up/down ti step 2)
isolation electrical output - Input 1)
: function Basic
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
N
N
i
i
N
N
v
v
=
=
V
1
V
2
+
i
1
i
2
N
1
N
2
Ideal model
V
1
V
2
+
i
1
i
2
N
1
N
2
Model used for
most PE application
L
m
32
Flyback Converter
V
d
+
V
o
V
d
N
1
N
2 i
1
i
2
+
v
2
v
1
+
i
LM
i
D
+ v
D
i
C
i
R
C R
v
SW
+

+
i
S
L
M
V
o
Flyback converter circuit
Model with magnetising
inductance
33
Operation: switch closed
V
d
V
o
N
2
+
0
0
v
1
v
1
=V
s
i
LM
i
s
=i
LM
+
N
1
+
v
2
( )
0 and 0
Therefore,
off turned diode i.e. , 0
er, transform the of side load On the
1 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 2
1
= =
<
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
= A
=
A
=
A
=
= =
i i
N
N
V V v
N
N
V
N
N
v v
L
DT V
i
L
V
DT
iL
dt
iL
dt
diL
dt
di
L V v
d o D
d
m
d
closed
L
m
d m m m
Lm
m d
m
34
Switch opened
V
s
+
v
1
+
i
LM
N
1
N
2
v
2
= V
S
+
V
o
i
D
v
SW
( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
=
A
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2 1
2
2
1
1
: switch the across Voltage
) 1 (
1
But
N
N
V V v
N
N
L
T D V
i
N
N
L
V
T D
i
dt
i
dt
di
N
N
V
dt
di
L v
N
N
V
N
N
v v
V v
N
N
V v
o d SW
m
o
open
m
L
m
o m
L
m
L
m
L
o
m
L
m
o
o
o
35
Output voltage
( ) ( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

= A + A
1
2
2
1
1
0
1
0
operation, state - steady For
N
N
D
D
V V
N
N
L
T D V
L
DT V
i i
d o
m
o
m
d
opened
L
closed
L
m m
Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost
converter.

Output can be greater of less than input,depending
upon D.

Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.

36
Flyback waveforms
i
Lm
i
s
t
t
i
D
i
C
v
1
-V(N
1
/N
2
)
V
o
/ R
V
s
DT T
Ai
LM
( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
= =
=
=
1
2 0
2
1
2
2
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
: as n can writte
for Solving
: as to related is
N
N
R D
V
N
N
R D
D V
I
I
DR V
V
I
R
V
D I V
I
D I
T
DT I
I
I I
R
V
I V
P P
d
L
L
d
L
L d
L
L
L
s
L s
s d
s
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
37
Max, Min inductor current
( )
RCf
D
V
V
r
N
N
f
R D V
L
f L
D V
L
DT V
N
N
R D
D V
I
L
DT V
N
N
R D
D V
i
I I
L
DT V
N
N
R D
D V
i
I I
d
m
m
d
m
d d
L
m
d d
L
L L
m
d d
L
L L
m
m
m m
m
m m
=
A
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
=
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
+ =
0
0
2
2
1
2
min
2
1
2
2
min
2
1
2
2
min ,
2
1
2
2
max ,
boost, similar to is n calculatio Ripple
2
) 1 (
2 2
) 1 (
0 , CCM, For
2
) 1 (
2
2
) 1 (
2
38
Example
The Flyback converter has these specifications:
DC input voltage: 40V
Output voltage: 25V
Duty cycle: 0.5
Rated load: 62.5W
Max peak-peak inductor current ripple:
25% of the average inductor current.
Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V
Switching frequency: 75kHz

Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine
a) Transformer turns ratio
b) Value of magnetizing inductor L
m
.
c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) Value of capacitor C.

39
Full-bridge converter
SW2 SW4
SW3
V
S
N
S
N
S
+
v
x
C
L
x
R
+
V
o
+
v
p
SW1
SW1,SW2
SW3,SW4
DT T
2
T
DT
T
+
2
V
P
V
S
-V
S
V
x
|
|
.
|
\
|
P
S
S
N
N
V
DT
2
T
DT
T
+
2
T
40
Full bridge: basic operation
Switch pair: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].

Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The
other pair is off.

AC voltage is developed across the primary.
Then transferred to secondary via high frequency
transformers.

On secondary side, diode pair is high frequency
full wave rectification.

The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the buck
converter circuit.

Output Voltage

D
N
N
V V
p
s
s o

|
|
.
|
\
|
= 2

Chopper 2003

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chopper 2003

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 3-2003)

Power Electronics and

Power Electronics and

You might also like