CHAPTER 4

CORRELATION

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Summary of the last two lectures

Simple statistical models SPSS environment Exploring Data checking whether it is normal

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Simple statistical models: Variance

Mean = The sum SS = Sum of squared errors Variance = SS/N-1 Then

Standard deviation = square root of the variance The bigger the number of the SD, the more to show that the mean is not an accurate model.

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

The Standard Error

It is the standard deviation of sample means.
### A large standard error (relative to the sample mean) means that there is a lot of variability between the means of different samples and so the sample we have might not be representative of the population. ### A small standard error indicates that most sample means are similar to the population means and so our sample is likely to be an accurate reflection of the population.
Discovering Statistics Using SPSS Andy Field 2005

Normal Distribution and Z-score http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xhCL5m 4nI0&feature=related

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Assumption of Parametric date

1. Normally distributed data 2. Homogeneity of variance each of the group you tested should have the same variance 3. Interval data the distance between points of your scale should be equal at all parts along the scale 4. Independency data from different subjects are independent, which means that the behavior of one participant does not influence the behavior of another.

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

We need to check the normality of the data by doing this:

Analyze>Descriptive Statistics>Frequencies Analyze>Descriptive Statistics>Explore Graphs>Bar
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/field3e/SPSSstudentmovies8.htm

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS Andy Field 2005

Correlation

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Correlation is
A measure of the linear relationship between variables Three relationships can exist between X & Y
+ (positive) - (negative) No relationship

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Covariance
The simplest way to look at whether two variables are associated is to look at whether they COVARY In other words whether changes in one variable are met with similar changes in the other variable. If one deviates from the mean, (if they are related), another variable will also move
Discovering Statistics Using SPSS Andy Field 2005

Variance = SS/N-1

When there are two variables, rather than squaring each difference, we can multiply the difference for one variable by the corresponding difference for the second variable.

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Covariance
A positive covariance indicates that as one variable deviates from the mean, the other variable deviates in the SAME direction. A negative covariance indicates that as one variable deviates from the mean, the other deviates from the mean in the opposite direction.

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Standardization
The standardized covariance value is known as a correlation coefficient = r Always lies between -1 (perfectly negative) and +1 (perfectly positive)

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Figure 4.1

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Before calculating the r

Use a scatterplot to have a feel of the relationship between the two or more variables Why? It helps us to see whether there seems to be a relationship between the variables, what kind of relationship it is and whether any cases are markedly different from the others.
Discovering Statistics Using SPSS Andy Field 2005

Simple Scatterplot

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

3D Scatterplot

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Overlay Scatterplot

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Matrix Scatterplot

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Calculation

There are two types of correlation: 1. Bivariate (two variables) 2. Partial (two variables while controlling the effect of one or more additional variables)

http://www.uk.sagepub.com/field3e/SPSSstu dentmovies.htm
Discovering Statistics Using SPSS Andy Field 2005

If any of the variables is a categorical variable, the.

Biserial and Point-Biserial Correlations

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Partial Correlation

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Partial Correlation

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS

Andy Field 2005