1

Radioactivity
Most stable nuclei have about same number of
protons as neutrons.
If the energy gets too high, nucleus will
spontaneously try to change to lower energy
configuration.
These nuclear are unstable, and are said to decay.
They are called radioactive nuclei.
2
Stability of nuclei
Dots are naturally
occurring isotopes.
Larger region is
isotopes created in
the laboratory.
Observed nuclei
have ~ N=Z
3
Radioactive nuclei

~ equal #
neutrons and
protons
4
Radioactive decay
Decay usually involves emitting some
particle from the nucleus.
Generically refer to this as radiation.
Not necessarily electromagnetic radiation,
but in some cases it can be.
The radiation often has enough energy to
strip electrons from atoms, or to sometimes
break apart chemical bonds in living cells.
5
Discovery of radioactivity
Accidental discovery in 1896
Henri Becquerel was trying to
investigate x-rays
(discovered in 1895 by Roentgen).
Exposed uranium compound to sunlight,
then placed it on photographic plates
Believed uranium absorbed suns energy
and then emitted it as x-rays.
On the 26th-27th February, experiment
"failed" because it was overcast in Paris.
Becquerel developed plates anyway,
finding strong images,
Proved uranium emitted radiation
without an external source of energy.
6
Detecting radiation
A Geiger counter
Radiation ionizes (removes electrons) atoms
in the counter
7
A random process
The particle emission is a random process
It has some probability of occurring.
For every second of time,
there is a probability that the nucleus will decay
by emitting a particle.
If we wait long enough, all the radioactive atoms
will have decayed.


8
Radioactivity
The rate change of the number of radioactive
nuclei :


N
dt
dN
=
Where: = decay constant
N = Number of radioactive nuclei
minus indicate that N is decreasing in time
t
e N N

=
0
9
Radioactivity
The decay rate R or the number of decay per
second


t t
e R e N
dt
dN
R

= = =
0 0
Where: R = The decay rate

= Activity (A)
N
0
= Number of radioactive nuclei at t=0

10
Unit of activity
1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 X 10
10
decays/s

1 decay/s = 1 becquerel (Bq)

1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 X 10
10
Bq


11
Radioactive half-life
Example of random decay.
Start with 8,000 identical radioactive nuclei
Suppose probability of decaying in one second is 50%.
t=0 t=1
sec
t=2
sec
t=3
sec
The half-life is one
second
Every second, half
the atoms decay
Undecayed
nuclei
12
The half-time a radioactive substance is the time it takes half of
given number of radioactive nuclei to decay
Radioactive half-life (T
1/2
)

693 . 0 2 ln
e
2
2 / 1
0
0 2 / 1
= =
=

T
A
A
T
13
Radioactive half-life (T
1/2
)
where
14
Example
Solution:
The half of radioactive nucleus Ra
226
88
Is 1.6 X10
3
years and the sample contains
3.0 X 10
16
such nuclei at t = 0.
Determine its activity at this time
The decay constant
2 / 1
693 . 0
T
=
15
solution
Half-time T
1/2

s T
years T
10
2 / 1
3
2 / 1
10 0 . 5
10 6 . 1
=
=
The activity of the sample at t = 0
R = N
0
= (1.4X10
-11
s
-1
)(3X10
10
)
R = 4.1X10
5
decays/s
R = (4.1X10
5
)(1/3.7X10
10
)

c
i
= 11.1 C
i

The decay constant
1 11
10
2 / 1
10 4 . 1
10 5
693 . 0 693 . 0

=

= = s
s T

16
Different types of radioactivity
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting some form
of energy,
Three different types of decay observed:
Alpha decay
Beta decay
Gamma decay
(First three letters of Greek alphabet).
Ernest Rutherford (1899): "These experiments show that the uranium
radiation is complex and that there are present at least two distinct types
of radiation - one that is very readily absorbed, which will be termed for
convenience the alpha-radiation, and the other of more penetrative
character which will be termed the beta-radiation."
17
Penetrating power of radiation
Alpha radiation very weak
Beta radiation penetrates farther
Gamma radiation hardest to stop
18
Is the radiation charged?
Alpha radiation positively charged
Beta radiation negatively charged
Gamma radiation uncharged
Phy107 Fall 2006 19
Alpha radiation
Alpha radiation now known
to be a helium nucleus
(2 protons, 2 neutrons)
Piece of atom (alpha particle) is broken
from heavy nucleus and ejected
20
A new element
When a nucleus emits an alpha-particle,
it loses two neutrons and two protons.
It becomes a different element (the number of
protons in the nucleus has changed).



Where: X = the parent nucleus
Y = the daughter nucleus
e
A
Z
A
Z
H Y X
4
2
4
2
+

21
A new element

Example:



92
238
U
2
4
He+
90
234
Th
92 protons
146 neutrons
90 protons
144 neutrons
2 protons
2 neutrons
Alpha particle
Thorium is the element with 90 electrons
(and hence 90 protons in the nucleus)
22
A new element
23
Decay question
Radium was isolated by Marie Curie in 1898.
It has a half-life of 1,600 years
and decays by alpha-emission.
The resulting element is

A. Polonium (84 electrons)
B. Thorium (90 electrons)
C. Radon (86 electrons)



88
226
Ra
24
Decay chain originates at
238
U
Number of neutrons
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

p
r
o
t
o
n
s

o decay
25
Decay sequence of
238
U
Number of neutrons
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

p
r
o
t
o
n
s

o decay
But what are these?
26
A different kind of decay
Number of neutrons
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

p
r
o
t
o
n
s

Number of neutrons
decreases by one
Number of protons
increases by one
How could this happen?
27
Beta decay
The parent and the daughter nucleus has the
same number of nucleus but the atomic
number is change one.
v |
v |
+ +
+ +
+

+
1
1
1
1
Y X
Y X
A
Z
A
Z
A
Z
A
Z
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Example of |
-1
decay

14
C (radioactive form of carbon) decays by
beta decay (electron emission)+antineutrino
Carbon has 6 electrons, so six protons.

14
C has (14-6)=8 neutrons.
Now have a new element (one more proton)
Element with 7 protons in nucleus is Nitrogen
v + +

e N C
14
7
14
6
29
Beta decay
30
Other Beta decay (|
+1
)
This is the antiparticle of the electron.
Called the positron.
v + +
+1 18
8
18
9
e O F
31
This is the antiparticle of the electron.
Called the positron.
32
Gamma decay
So far
Alpha decay: alpha particle emitted from nucleus
Beta decay: electron or positron emitted
Both can leave the nucleus in excited state
Just like a hydrogen atom can be in an excited state
Hydrogen emits photon as it drops to lower state.
Nucleus also emits photon as
it drops to ground state
This is gamma radiation
But energies much larger,
so extremely high energy
photons.
33
Gamma decay
+
-
X X
A
Z
A
Z
Where : X* indicates a nucleus in an excited
state
Example:

v
+
+ +
-

-
C C
e C B
12
6
12
6
0
1
12
6
12
5
34
Gamma decay