Microwave Remote Sensing

Microwave Remote Sensing:
Principles and Applications

Dr. H. Ramesh
Dept. of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics,
National Institute of Technology Karnataka,
Surathkal, Mangalore, India
Dr. H. Ramesh, Lecture-15, Microwave
remote sensing 2
What is microwave remote sensing?

A special application of microwave communications
technologies for the purpose of collecting geophysical
information about targets (objects and media) without
making physical contact.
Microwave reflections or emissions from earth
materials bear no direct relationship to their counterparts
in the visible portions of the spectrum.
EM Spectrum
Microwave region
300 MHz 30 GHz.
Millimeter wave
30 GHz 300 GHz.

IEEE uses a different definition
300 MHz 100 GHz
remote sensing 4
we have characterized
electromagnetic radiation in
the visible and infrared
portions of the spectrum
primarily by wavelength,
microwave portions of the
spectrum are often
referenced according to
both wavelength and
frequency. The microwave
region of the spectrum is
quite large, relative to the
visible and infrared,
remote sensing 5
EM Spectrum
Microwave region
300 MHz 30 GHz.
Millimeter wave
30 GHz 300 GHz.

IEEE uses a different
definition
300 MHz 100 GHz

remote sensing 6
Review EM theory and Antennas
Propagation of EM
waves is governed by
Maxwell equations.

For time-harmonic
variation we can write
the above equations as

e
ec
= V
= V
= V
+ = V
= V
= V
c
c
= V
c
c
+ = V
D
B
H j E
E j J H
D
B
t
B
E
t
D
J H
.
0 .
.
0 .
remote sensing 7
EM Theory
Helmholtz Equation
From the four Maxwell
equations, we can derive
vector Helmholtz
equations

For each component of E
and H field we can write
a scalar equation

0
0
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
= V
= V
z
z z z
y
y y y
x
x x x
E
z
E
y
E
x
E
E
z
E
y
E
x
E
E
z
E
y
E
x
E
where
H H
E E
c e

remote sensing 8
EM theory
and are
determined by material
properties.

Materials are classified
as insulators and
conductors

2
conductor a For
media. loss - low of examples are soil dry
and snow dry ice, r Fresh wate
2
medium loss - loss a For
eo
| o
ec o
c e |
c
o
o
ec o
ec o e | o
= =
>>
=
~
<<
+ = + = j j j
remote sensing 9
EM Theory
Reflection and
refraction
Whenever a wave
impinges on a dielectric
interface, part of the
wave will be reflected
and remaining will be
transmitted into the lower
medium.

i
r
t
remote sensing 10
EM Theory--Scattering
Microwave Scattering from a distributed
target depends on
Dielectric constant.
Surface roughness.
Internal structure.
Homogeneous
Inhomogeneous
Wavelength or Frequency.
Polarization.

remote sensing 11
Antennas
Antennas are used to couple electromagnetic waves
into free space or capture electromagnetic waves
from free space.
Type of antennas
Wire
Dipole
Loop antenna
Aperture
Parabolic dish
Horn

remote sensing 12
Antennas
Antennas are characterized by
their:
Directivity
It is the ratio of maximum
radiated power to that radiated
by an isotropic antenna.
Efficiency
Efficiency defines how much of
the power is the total power
radiated by the antenna to that
delivered to the antenna.
Gain
It is the product of efficiency
and directivity
Beamwidth
Width of the main lobe at 3-dB
points.

dipole
remote sensing 13
Microwave Remote Sensing: Principles and
Applications.
Advantages
Day/night coverage.
All weather except during
periods of heavy rain.
Complementary
information to that in
optical and IR regions.
Disadvantages
Data are difficult to
interpret.
Coarse resolution except
for SAR.
remote sensing 14
Microwave sensing encompasses both active and passive
forms of remote sensing. As described in remote sensing
chapter, the microwave portion of the spectrum covers the
range from approximately 1cm to 1m in wavelength.
Because of their long wavelengths, compared to the
visible and infrared, microwaves have special properties
that are important for remote sensing. Longer
wavelength microwave radiation can penetrate
through cloud cover, haze, dust, and all but the
heaviest rainfall as the longer wavelengths are not
susceptible to atmospheric scattering which affects shorter
optical wavelengths. This property allows detection of
microwave energy under almost all weather and
environmental conditions so that data can be collected at
any time.
remote sensing 15
There is an interaction between the EM waves and
matter.

The target imposes a modulation on the EM wave which
becomes its identifying characteristics.

Sensors use microwave communications technologies.

Active (radar) and passive (microwave radiometry)
measurements.

How does it work?

remote sensing 16
Passive microwave sensing
Passive microwave sensing is similar in concept to thermal
remote sensing. All objects emit microwave energy of some
magnitude, but the amounts are generally very small. A
passive microwave sensor detects the naturally emitted
microwave energy within its field of view. This emitted
energy is related to the temperature and moisture properties
of the emitting object or surface. Passive microwave
sensors are typically radiometers or scanners and an
antenna is used to detect and record the microwave energy.
remote sensing 17
The microwave energy recorded by a
passive sensor can be emitted by
the atmosphere (1),
reflected from the surface (2),
emitted from the surface (3),
transmitted from the subsurface (4).
Because the wavelengths are so long,
the energy available is quite small
compared to optical wavelengths.
Thus, the fields of view must be large
to detect enough energy to record a
signal. Most passive microwave
sensors are therefore characterized
by low spatial resolution.
remote sensing 18
Applications of Passive Microwave Remote sensing
Applications of passive microwave remote sensing include
meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography. By looking
"at", or "through" the atmosphere, depending on the
wavelength,
Meteorologists can use passive microwaves to measure
atmospheric profiles and to determine water and ozone
content in the atmosphere.
Hydrologists use passive microwaves to measure soil
moisture since microwave emission is influenced by
moisture content.
Oceanographic applications include mapping sea ice,
currents, and surface winds as well as detection of
pollutants, such as oil slicks.
remote sensing 19
Active Microwave Remote Sensing
Active microwave sensors provide their
own source of microwave radiation to
illuminate the target. Active microwave
sensors are generally divided into two
distinct categories: imaging and non-
imaging.
The most common form of imaging
active microwave sensors is RADAR.
RADAR is an acronym for RAdio
Detection And Ranging, which
essentially characterizes the function
and operation of a radar sensor. The
sensor transmits a microwave (radio)
signal towards the target and detects
the backscattered portion of the signal.
remote sensing 20
Microwave Remote Sensing
Radar
Radio Detection and
Ranging.

Texts:
Skolnik, M. I.,
Introduction to Radar
Systems, McGraw Hill,
1981.
Stimson, G. W.,
Introduction to Airborne
Radar, SciTech
Publishing, 1998.

Applications
Civilian
Navigation and
tracking
Search and
surveillance
Imaging & Mapping
Weather
Sounding
Probing
Remote sensing

Military
Navigation and
tracking

Search and
surveillance

Imaging & Mapping

Weather

Proximity fuses

Counter measures

remote sensing 21
Active Sensors Radar Altimeter
Radar altimeter is a short pulse radar used
for accurate height measurements.
Ocean topography.
Glacial ice topography
Sea ice characteristics
Classification and ice edge
Vegetation

http://topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/images/P38232.jpg

remote sensing 22
Radar Altimeter
Missions
Satellite Radar Altimeters
Mission Frequency Accuracy Period
SKYLAB Ku 10 m 1973
GEOS Ku 1-5 M 1976
SEASAT Ku ~1 m 1978
GEOSAT Ku 10 CM 1985-1990
ERS-1 Ku < 10 cm 1992-1998
TOPEX C &Ku < 10 cm 1992-
ERS-2 Ku < 10 cm 1996-
GFO Ku <10 cm 1998-
ENVISAT Ku &S <10 CM 2001-
Jason-1 Ku &C <10 cm 2000-
CRYOSAT and other
missions Ku Few cm 2003-
remote sensing 23
Antennas
An array of antennas is
used whenever higher
than directivity is
needed.
Can be used to electronic
scanning.
Most of the SAR
antennas are arrays.

remote sensing 24
Radar Principles
Radar classified
according to the trasmit
waveform.
Continuous
Doppler
Altimeter
Scatterometer
Pulse
Wide range of
applications

Radar
Non-pulsed
Pulsed
CW FM-CW
Non-Coherent
Coherent
MTI
SAR
Pulse Doppler
remote sensing 25
Radar Principles
Radar measures
distance by measuring
time delay between the
transmit and received
pulse.
1 us = 150 m
1 ns = 15 cm

Radar
Radar
Pulse
Radar
jet. the to Range R
n propagatio of velocity c
reception and
ansmission between tr delay time
2
=
=
=
=
t
t c
R
remote sensing 26
Radar principle
Unambiguous range
and Pulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF)
PRF also determines the
maximum doppler we
can measure with a
radar SAR.
PRF > 2 f
dmax
2.12
4.16
0.47 PRI
s 1 for 150 ,
2
100
1500 2
10 3
R
Hz 1500 f radar with a For
2
1
,
p
8
un
p
t
t
= = A = A
= =
=
=
=
=
m r
c
r
km
x
x
f
C
R
T
f PRF
T PRI
p
p
un
p
remote sensing 27
Passive: uses natural energy, either reflected sunlight or
emitted thermal or microwave radiation

Active: sensor creates its own energy

Transmitted toward Earth

Interacts with atmosphere and/or surface

Reflects back toward sensor (backscatter)

Active and Passive Microwave Sensors
( Summery)
remote sensing 28
Non-imaging microwave sensors
Non-imaging microwave sensors include altimeters and
scatterometers. In most cases these are profiling devices which
take measurements in one linear dimension, as opposed to the
two-dimensional representation of imaging sensors. Radar
altimeters transmit short microwave pulses and measure the
round trip time delay to targets to determine their distance from
the sensor.
Generally altimeters look straight down at nadir below the
platform and thus measure height or elevation (if the altitude of
the platform is accurately known). Radar altimetry is used on
aircraft for altitude determination and on aircraft and satellites for
topographic mapping and sea surface height estimation.
remote sensing 29

What is a Microwave Scatterometer?
A special purpose radar sensor that measures scattering from
the earths surface i.e., a scatter-meter

If the objects are having smaller wavelengths,then scattering
occurs
remote sensing 30
Active sensors
Scatterometer
Scatter o Meter A calibrated radar used to measure
scattering coefficient.
They are used to measure radar backscatter as a function
of incidence angle.
Ground and aircraft-based scatterometers are widely used.
Experimental data on variety of targets to support model and
algorithm development activities.
Developing algorithms for extracting target characteristics from
data.
Understanding the physics of scattering to develop empirical or
theoretical models.
Developing target classification algorithms

remote sensing 31
Active sensors Scatterometers
Wide range of applications
Wind vector measurements
Sea and glacial ice
Snow extent.
Vegetation mapping
Soil moisture
Semi-arid or dry areas.

remote sensing 32
Scatterometers
Scatterometers are also generally non-imaging sensors and are
used to make precise quantitative measurements of the amount
of energy backscattered from targets. The amount of energy
backscattered is dependent on the surface properties
(roughness) and the angle at which the microwave energy strikes
the target.
Scatterometry measurements over ocean surfaces can be used
to estimate wind speeds based on the sea surface roughness.
Ground-based scatterometers are used extensively to accurately
measure the backscatter from various targets in order to
characterize different materials and surface types.
remote sensing 33
For the remainder of this chapter we focus solely on
imaging radars. As with passive microwave
sensing, a major advantage of radar is the capability
of the radiation to penetrate through cloud cover and
most weather conditions. Because radar is an active
sensor, it can also be used to image the surface at
any time, day or night. These are the two primary
advantages of radar: all-weather and day or night
imaging.
Contd..
remote sensing 34
Radar altimeter
Other sources of errors
Atmospheric delays
Troposheric delays.
EM bias
Pointing errors
Orbit errors
Accuracies of few cms are
being achieved with new
generation sensors.
Dual-frequency
Water vapor radiometers
GPS orbit determination
Calibration.

Resti et al, The Envisat Altimeter System RA-2,ESA
Bulletin 98, June 1999
sigma=5.5 cm
remote sensing 35

Satellite Microwave Scatterometer
Pr = Pt *
Where = ocean
Scattering coeff. Or
Normalized radar
Cross-section
remote sensing 36

Scatterometer Applications
Ocean Wind Vector (wind speed & direction)
Hurricanes & Typhoons
Sea Ice Imaging
Land Imaging
remote sensing 37
Antarctic Sea Ice Imaging
remote sensing 38
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)

Microwave remote sensing of rainfall
TRMM Microwave (Radiometer) Imager
Precipitation Radar
remote sensing 39

Greenland Ice Melt - 4 day intervals

remote sensing 40
History of MRS
The first demonstration of the transmission of radio microwaves and reflection
from various objects was achieved by Hertz in 1886.
Shortly after the turn of the century, the first rudimentary radar was developed
for ship detection.
In the 1920s and 1930s, experimental ground-based pulsed radars were
developed for detecting objects at a distance.
The first imaging radars used during World War II had rotating sweep displays
which were used for detection and positioning of aircrafts and ships.
After World War II, side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) was developed for
military terrain reconnaissance and surveillance where a strip of the ground
parallel to and offset to the side of the aircraft was imaged during flight.
In the 1950s, advances in SLAR and the development of higher resolution
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) were developed for military purposes.
In the 1960s these radars were declassified and began to be used for civilian
mapping applications.
Over the 1980s and early 1990s, several research and commercial airborne radar
systems have collected vast amounts of imagery throughout the world demonstrating
the utility of radar data for a variety of applications.
With the launch of ESA's ERS-1 in 1991, spaceborne radar research intensified, and
was followed by the major launches of Japan's J-ERS satellite in 1992, ERS-2 in
1995, and Canada's advanced RADARSAT satellite, also in 1995.

remote sensing 41
Imaging Radars & Scatterometers
Imaging Radars
Real Aperture Radar (RAR)
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Widely used for military and civilian applications.
RAR
Thin long antenna mounted on the side of an aircraft.

remote sensing 42
Imaging radars
RAR
Resolution is determined
by antenna beamwidth in
the along track direction

Pulse width in the cross-
track direction

RAR geometry
factor weighting =
= =
k
D
R
k R r
a a
| o
) sin( 2 u
t
o
c
r
c
=
remote sensing 43
Imaging radars
For a radar operating at
f=10 GHz with a 3-m long
antenna in the along track
direction and 0.5 us pulse,
resolution at 45 degree
incidence and range of 10
km is given by
Assume k=0.8

m 106
) 45 sin( 2
10 5 . 0 10 3
800
3
03 . 0 100000
8 . 0
100
106
) 45 sin( 2
10 5 . 0 10 3
80
3
03 . 0 10000
8 . 0
6 8
6 8
= =
= =
=
= =
= =
x x x
r
m
x
r
km R
m
x x x
r
m
x
r
c
a
c
a
o
o
o
o
remote sensing 44
Imaging Radars: RAR
Resolution

RARs were used until
1990s.
They are replaced by
SARs.
Resolution should 1/20
about the
dimensions of the
target we want to
recognize

MRS: vol. II, Ulaby, Moore and Fung
remote sensing 45
SAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Use the forward motion of an aircraft or a spacecraft to
synthesize a long antenna.
Satellite SARs
ERS-1, ERS-2, RADARSAT, ENVISAT, JERS-1,
SEASAT, SIR-A,B& C.
Applications
Ocean wave imaging
Oil slick monitoring
Sea ice classification and dynamics
Soil moisture
Vegetation
Glacial ice surface velocity

remote sensing 46
SAR
We can use a small physical antenna
For focused SAR resolution is independent
of
Wavelength
Range
Best possible resolution is L/2
Where L= length of the physical antenna
remote sensing 47
Microwave Radiometer
Two basic types of radiometers
Total power radiometer
Highest sensitivity
Switching-type radiometers and its variants.

Typical total power radiometer

LNA
Mixer
Local Oscillator
IF Amp
Bandpass Filter
Square-law det
Integrator
K T
K T
s MHz B
time egration
bandwidth B
where
B
T
T
total
in
in
in
Total
2 . 0
500
1 , 6
int
T T T
sys a l tota
= A
=
= =
=
=
+ =
= A
t
t
t
remote sensing 48
Dicke or Switching-type radiometer
Any fluctuations in gain of the receiver will reduce
radiometer sensitivity.
To eliminate system effects, Dicke developed
switching type radiometer.
It consists of switch and a synchronous detector. The
input is switched between the antenna and noise
source. If the injected noise power is equal to input
signal power, the effect of gain fluctuations is eliminated.

remote sensing 49
Typical Dicke-type radiometer

L
Mixer
Local Oscillator
IF Amp
Bandpass Filter
Noise
source
+
Modulator
+
LNA
-
Diff Amp
in
Bt
o
total
1.4T
T
50% by reduced is n time integratio 50%, is cycle duty the If
=
remote sensing 50
RF Radiometry Characteristics
Moden Radiometer
Digital processor
To eliminate down conversion process
digital
processor/
correlator
scan
low noise
amplifier
multiplexer/
spectrometer
detector/
digitizer
mixer
LO
Receiver
Antenna
Hartley,NASA

remote sensing 51
Microwave Remote Sensing
Research and application of microwave
technology to remote sensing of
Oceans and ice
Solid earth and Natural hazards..
Atmosphere and precipitation.
Vegetation and Soil moisture

remote sensing 52
Microwave Remote Sensing Ocean and Ice
Winds
Scatterometer.
Quickscat, Seawinds
Polarimetric radiometer
Ocean topography
Radar altimeters
Ocean salinity
AQUARIUS
Radiometer and radar combination.
Radar to measure winds for correcting for the effect of
surface roughness.
remote sensing 53
Ocean Vector Winds Scatterometers
QuikScat
Replacement mission for NSCAT, following loss of ADEOS
Launch date: June 19, 1999
SeaWinds
EOS instrument flying on the Japanese ADEOS II Mission
Launch date: December 14, 2002 ????
Instrument Characteristics of QuikScat and SeaWinds
Instrument with 120 W peak (30% duty) transmitter at 13.4 GHz, 1 m
near-circular antenna with two beams at 46
o
and 54
o
incidence angles

Scatterometers send microwave pulses to the
Earth's surface, and measure the power scattered
back. Backscattered power over the oceans
depends on the surface roughness, which in turn
depends on wind speed and direction.
QuikScat
SeaWinds
Advanced sensors larger aperture
antennas.Passive polarimetric sensors.
Courtesy: Yunjin Kim, JPL
remote sensing 54
Synthetic Aperture Radar
Generally refers to the case of a moving radar and a
stationary target- usually an extended scene, such as the
surface of the Earth.

ISAR refers to the case in which the radar is relatively
stationary and a rotating target provides all(or most) of the
motion to create the synthetic aperture.
SAR systems take advantage of the long-range propagation characteristics of
radar signals and the complex information processing capability of modern
digital electronics to provide high resolution imagery. Synthetic aperture radar
complements photographic and other optical imaging capabilities because of
the minimum constraints on time-of-day and atmospheric conditions and
because of the unique responses of terrain and cultural targets to radar
frequencies.
remote sensing 55
Comparison Between RAR and SAR
remote sensing 56
Global Ocean Salinity
Aquarius (JPL, GSFC, CONAE)
ESSP-3 mission in the risk
mitigation phase
First instrument to measure global
ocean salinity
Passive and active microwave
instrument at L-band
Resolution
Baseline 100km, Minimum
200km
Global coverage in 8 days
Accuracy: 0.2 psu
Baseline mission life: 3
years
1 week of salinity measurements from space
100 yrs of salinity measurements by ship
remote sensing 57
Microwave Remote Sensing Soil Moisture.
HRDROS
Back-up ESSP mission for global soil moisture.
L-band radiometer.
L-band radar.
-98.5 -98.0 -97.5
35.0
35.5
36.0
36.5
-98.0 -97.5 -97.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Southern Great Plains Hydrology Experiment (SGP97)
Surface Soil Moisture Derived From Remotely Sensed Microwave Data
June 30 July 1
July 2 July 3
Soil Moisture (%)
L
a
t i t u
d
e
(
D
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
Longitude (Degrees)
50
40
30
20
10
0
35.0
35.5
36.0
36.5
37.0
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
June 30
NASA Land Surface Hydrology Program
-98.5 -98.0 -97.5
35.0
35.5
36.0
36.5
-98.0 -97.5 -97.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Southern Great Plains Hydrology Experiment (SGP97)
Surface Soil Moisture Derived From Remotely Sensed Microwave Data
June 30 July 1
July 2 July 3
Soil Moisture (%)
L
a
t i t u
d
e
(
D
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
Longitude (Degrees)
50
40
30
20
10
0
35.0
35.5
36.0
36.5
37.0
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
Chickasha
ElReno
Lamont
OklahomaCity
June 30
NASA Land Surface Hydrology Program
Courtesy: Tom Jackson, USDA
SGP97
Radar
Pol: VV, HH & HV
Res 3 and 10 km
Radiometer
Pol: H, V
Res =40 km,
dT= 0.64 K
remote sensing 58
Salient Features
NASA ESSP mission
First 94 GHz radar space borne system
Co-manifested with CALIPSO on Delta launch vehicle
Flies Formation with the EOS Constellation
Current launch date: April 2004
Operational life: 2 years
Partnership with DoD (on-orbit ops), DoE
(validation) and CSA (radar development)

Science
Measure the vertical structure of clouds and quantify their ice and water content

Improve weather prediction and clarify climatic processes.

Improve cloud information from other satellite systems, in particular those of Aqua

Investigate the way aerosols affect clouds and precipitation

Investigate the utility of 94 GHz radar to observe and quantify precipitation, in the
context of cloud properties, from space
CloudSAT
Microwave Remote Sensing Atmosphere and
Precipitation
remote sensing 59
Earth Science and RF Radiometery
Microwave
Radiometry
Applications.
Ocean surface wind
Soil moisture
Sea surface temperature/
Sea surface salinity
Atmospheric temperature, humidity, and clouds
Precipitation
Atmospheric chemistry
Hartley,NASA
remote sensing 60
Comparison Between RAR and SAR

remote sensing 61
SAR Modes
remote sensing 62
Side-Looking Radar System
remote sensing 63
SLR Operation
remote sensing 64
SAR Vs SLR
A synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can
produce high-resolution two-dimensional
images of mapped areas. The SAR
comprises a pulsed transmitter, an
antenna, and a phase-coherent receiver.
The SAR is borne by a constant velocity
vehicle such as an aircraft or satellite,
with the antenna beam axis oriented
obliquely to the velocity vector. The
image plane is defined by the velocity
vector and antenna beam axis. The
image orthogonal coordinates are range
and cross range (azimuth). SAR
operation requires relative motion
between radar and target.
The invention relates to a side-looking
SAR system, comprising a transmit
aperture, a receive aperture of different
size, separated from said transmit
aperture and divided into a number of
receive sub-apertures arranged along
elevation and azimuth direction, means
for coherently processing the signals of
each receive sub-aperture comprising
means for phase shifting the signal from
each receive sub-aperture by a time
and/or frequency variant phase value,
means for the summation of the resulting
signals from receive sub-apertures
arrayed along the elevation direction,
whereby the time and/or frequency
variant phase value is generated in such
a way that the radar echo signal is
maximized in the summed signal as the
radar transmit signal runs over the earth's
surface
remote sensing 65
Conclusion

microwave sensors provide valuable geophysical
measurements
Remote sensing satellites provide global coverage each day
Day/night all weather
Atmosphere
Water vapor, cloud liquid water, precipitation
Sea Ice and land snow cover
Ocean
Surface winds, sea surface temperature

remote sensing 66
REFERENCES
[1] Lillesand Thomas M. and Ralph W. Kiefer,Remote Sensing and
Image Interpretation, fourth edition, chapter 8,pp. 616-692
[2] Sullivan Roger J., Radar Foundations for Imaging and Advanced
Concepts, Chapter 7, pp.191-194
[3] http://www.engr.ucf.edu/centers/cfrsl/
[4] http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/
[5] Ulaby, F.T., R.K.Moore, and A.K.Fung, Microwave Remote
Sensing: Active and Passive, Addison-Welsey, Reading, MA;
vol.1: Microwave Remote Sensing Fundamentals and Radiometry,
1981;vol. II: Radar Remote Sensing and Surface Scattering and
Emission Theory, 1982;vol. III.

Microwave Remote Sensing

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Microwave Remote Sensing

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Microwave Remote Sensing:

Principles and Applications

Dr. H. Ramesh, Lecture-15, Microwave

Dr. H. Ramesh, Lecture-15, Microwave

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