Final Review

Renal System

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Classification of Hormones
Peptide or protein hormones (large, water soluble) chains of amino acids most hormones are peptide hormones; e.g., insulin (pancreas)
Steroid hormones (lipid soluble) derived from cholesterol e.g., adrenocorticosteroids (adrenal cortex), estrogen (ovaries), testosterone (testes) Biogenic amines (small, water soluble) derived from the amino acid tyrosine e.g., thyroxins (thyroid), epinephrine (adrenal medulla)

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones

TSH -> thyroid

-> indicates tropic effect on hormonesecreting organs

GH -> liver; secretes somatomedin

increases growth & mitosis in most cells PRL -> testes secretes testosterone FSH & LH-> gonads; secrete sex hormones

increases lactation ACTH -> adrenal cortex; secretes corticosteroids

gamete maturation

increases melanin production

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones

growth hormone prolactin acidophils

mnemonics for hormones: GH PRL A

b FSH LH ACTH TSH

basophils follicle stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone thyroid-stimulating hormone

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Control of Posterior Pituitary Gland Secretions

The hypothalamus regulates the release of two hormones it secretes and stores in neurosecretory cells which project into the posterior pituitary (pars nervosa)
Oxytocin (OT) - regulated by positive feedback! stimulates uterine contractions & let down of milk prostate gland secretion in males Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys arteriole constriction
hypothalamohypophyseal tract

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Adrenal Glands (suprarenal)

Paired, pyramid-shaped endocrine glands anchored on the superior surface of each kidney & therefore retroperitoneal
Yellow due to stored fat

Outer cortex
Inner medulla

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Adrenal Cortex Hormones (Corticosteroids)

synthesis stimulated by ACTH produced by anterior pituitary >25 steroid hormones vital to survival regulate salt, sugar, & sex!

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SALT mineralocorticoids: aldosterone increases salt & water retention from kidney; BP

SUGAR glucocorticoids: cortisol gluconeogenesis; anti-inflammatory; response to longterm stress

SEX regulates androgens

neural tissue; epinephrine

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Pancreas
Digestion

Spongy, nodular organ between duodenum & spleen; posterior to stomach Exocrine:
pancreatic acini produce alkaline pancreatic juice that aids in digestion

Endocrine:
pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans) consists of four types of cells each producing a different hormone

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Digestion

Pancreatic Hormones

Produced by the following cell types in the Islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets)
Alpha cells - in response to blood glucose secrete glucagon blood glucose Beta cells in response to blood glucose secrete insulin blood glucose Delta cells in response to blood nutrient secrete somatostatin intestinal absorption F cells - stimulated by protein digestion

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Disorder of Beta cells of Pancreas: Diabetes Mellitus

Digestion

Results in inadequate uptake of glucose from blood so glucose spills over into urine; (sweet urine)
Chronic high blood glucose damages small blood vessels retinal blindness, kidney failure, leg amputations, heart disease, stroke Type 1 diabetes Insulin-dependent DM Autoimmune disease Beta cells are destroyed Type 2 diabetes Insulin-independent DM Decreased insulin uptake by body cells

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Ribs
12 pairs (both sexes)

true ribs (17)

1) connect individually to the sternum by separate cartilaginous extensions called costal cartilages costal cartilages do not attach directly to the sternum 810 fuse to the costal cartilage of rib 7 and thus are indirectly attached with the sternum 11 and 12 are floating ribs because they have no connection with the sternum

false ribs (812)

1) 2) 3)

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Dense Connective Tissue: Dense Irregular

collagen bundles lie in different directions. Found in the dermis of the skin and fibrous capsules where pull is in different directions.

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Loose Connective Tissue: Adipose

found with areolar under skin energy reserves insulating and protecting Signet ring appearance. Tightly packed adipocytes. Highly vascular.

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Major Arteries of the Thorax & Abdomen

Subclavian arteries internal thoracic arteries intercostal a. thorax & abdominal walls
Abdominal aorta unpaired arteries to the unpaired organs of the gastrointestinal tract:

1. Celiac trunk
2. Superior mesenteric 3. Inferior mesenteric Abdominal aorta paired arteries to paired organs:

1. Renal kidneys
2. Gonadal gonads (ovaries or testes) Aorta bifurcates -> common iliac arteries -> internal iliac artery -> pelvis and perineum

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Major Veins of the Thorax & Abdomen

Azygos system (unpaired)
drains thorax, pericardium, bronchi may also drain structures that normally drain into inf. vena cava or hepatic portal

merges into the superior vena cava

Following drain into the inferior vena cava: Hepatic veins drain liver Renal veins drain kidneys Internal iliac veins drain pelvis & perineum join common iliac veins merge w/ inferior vena cava

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Tunics (Layers)

Correspond to heart wall layers 1. Tunica Intima (Interna) smooth endothelium; reduces friction 2. Tunica Media circularly arranged smooth muscle; under sympathetic innervation vasoconstriction thicker in arteries 3. Tunica Externa (Adventitia)- areolar CT w/ elastic & collagen fibers maintains integrity of vessel; anchors vessel to other tissues
Vaso vasorum small vessels w/in tunica externa; deliver blood to large vessels

thicker in veins

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Centrifuge Separates Components of Whole Blood

Hematocrit or PCV = ratio of RBCs to total volume

straw-colored liquid

~42% in women

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Functions of Blood
Transportation Erythrocytes carry oxygen and carbon dioxide Plasma carries nutrients, hormones, waste products (to kidneys) Regulation Body Temperature Plasma absorbs and distributes heat throughout the body To cool - blood vessels in dermis dilate and dissipate heat at surface To conserve heat - dermal blood vessels constrict, warm blood is shunted to deeper blood vessels in the body pH Levels (a measure of alkalinity or acidity; neutral is 7) Plasma pH is kept at ~7.4 for normal cellular functioning Fluid Levels Constant exchange between blood plasma & interstitial fluid in tissues Balance maintained by electrolyte & protein levels in blood Too much fluid absorbed in the blood - high blood pressure Too much fluid leaves blood for tissues - low blood pressure & edema

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Simple Epithelium: Simple Cuboidal

One layer of cubeshaped cells Nucleus: usually round For secretion or absorption of fluids Examples: line kidney tubules, cover ovaries, line ducts of glands

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Transitional

Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and surface cells are squamous or domeshaped Cells can slide over each other to allow distention from urine Examples: lines ureters, bladder and part of urethra

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Body Membranes (coverings)

Epithelial membranes have epithelium on top of connective tissue

1) 2) Mucous membranes (mucosa) line passage ways and cavities open to the outside - digestive, respiratory, urinary, & reproductive tracts

Mucus secreted on surface prevents dessication

Serous membranes (serosa) line cavities not open to the outside pleura, pericardium, peritoneum

Secrete watery serous fluid (transudate) Always found as double membranes visceral and parietal

3)

Cutaneous membrane is skin (external membrane)

Connective tissue membranes are CT only

4) Synovial membranes line joints

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Skeletal Muscle

Long, striated, multinucleated at periphery Voluntary movements, expressions Neural stimulation required Attached to skeleton usually

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Smooth Muscle

No striations, tapered, single nucleus Often in sheets Involuntary May be autorhythmic Found in walls of hollow organs

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Parasympathetic division:

Preganglionic axons: long

minimal divergence Postganglionic axons: short Ganglionic neurons near target:
myelinated

unmyelinated

terminal ganglia or
intramural ganglia in organ Sympathetic division:

Preganglionic axons: short

extensive divergence exit spinal cord with anterior roots of T1L2 spinal nerves Postganglionic axons: long Ganglionic neurons in: paravertebral ganglia, or prevertebral ganglia (collateral axons)
myelinated unmyelinated

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PARASYMPATHETIC

SYMPATHETIC

Conserves energy & replenishes nutrient stores

Most active when body is at rest or digesting a meal Origin: brainstem nuclei for CNs III, VII, IX, & X & S2-S4 of spinal cord

SYMPATHETIC:

Uses energy for mass activation in emergency

Increases metabolic activity Brain patterns change Skins electrical resistance changes (lie detector test) Increased alertness Origin: lateral horns of T1-L2

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Parasympathetic Division

Spinal nerves S2-S4 give rise to pelvic splanchic nerves:

Distal end of large intestine & rectum 1. increased smooth muscle motility & secretory activity 2. defecation Bladder wall and distal ureter 1. contraction of smooth muscle

2. urination
Female clitoris and male penis 1. increased vasodilation 2. blood flow up -> erection

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PARASYMPATHETIC

SYMPATHETIC

Neurotransmitters
Preganglionic axons: all release Ach; effect is always excitatory, short-lived & local

Post-ganglionic axons: Parasympathetic division all release Ach; can be inhibitory

Sympathetic division post-ganglionic axons which release Ach are always excitatory most sympathetic post-ganglionic axons release norepinephrine (NE); effect is long-lasting, widespread; can be inhibitory

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Passive Transport Processes

Movement of substances along (down) a concentration or pressure gradient ATP is NOT required

Simple Diffusion (gas exchange in alveoli of lungs) Osmosis (diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; IV solutions are isotonic (0.9% NaCl) to avoid hemolysis) Facilitated Diffusion Requires the participation of specific transport proteins to move particles from a region of high concentration to lower concentration (e.g., glucose, urea, vitamins, Cl ions) Bulk Filtration Involves the diffusion of both solvents and solutes together across the membrane from higher to lower fluid pressure side (e.g. blood against inside wall of a blood vessel)

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Peroxisomes

Small sacs with powerful oxidase enzymes Detoxification

Toxins (ethanol, formaldehyde, phenol) converted to hydrogen peroxide Catalase converts hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen

Especially found in kidney and liver Self-replicating