BRM8088-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Lecture 1 Overview of Research

EPITEMOLOGY

From Greek (epistm), meaning "knowledge Is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the questions
What is knowledge? How is knowledge acquired? How do we know what we know?

SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE
Epistemologists generally recognize at least four different sources of knowledge:

INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE takes forms such as belief, faith, intuition, etc. It is based on feelings rather than hard, cold "facts.
AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE is based on information received from people, books, a supreme being, etc. Its strength depends on the strength of these sources E.g . The Koran, Bible. LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE is arrived at by reasoning from "point A" (which is generally accepted) to "point B" (the new knowledge). EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE is based on demonstrable, objective facts (which are determined through observation and/or experimentation).

RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE Research often makes use of all four of these ways of knowing: INTUITIVE (when coming up with an initial idea for research) AUTHORITATIVE (when reviewing the professional literature) LOGICAL (when reasoning from findings to conclusions) EMPIRICAL (when engaging in procedures that lead to these findings)

KEY TERMS Ontology basic assumptions about the nature of reality. Epistemology basic assumptions about what we can know about reality, and about the relationship between knowledge and reality. Paradigm - Perspective concerning appropriate research practice, based on ontological and epistemological assumptions Methodology - Specifies how the researcher may go about practically studying whatever he / she believes can be known.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

ONTOLOGY, EPISTEMOLOGY SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM METHODOLOGY

KNOWLEDGE

ONTOLOGY What is the nature of reality? If there were no human beings, might there still be galaxies, trees and rocks? Would they still be beautiful?
POSITIVIST PARADIGM INTERPRETIVIST /CONSTRUCTIONIST PARADIGM Multiple, emergent, shifting reality Based on subjective experience

Stable Law-like reality out there

EPISTEMOLOGY
What is knowledge? What is the relationship between knowledge and reality? If there were no human beings, would there still be three basic types of rock? Did the unconscious exist before Freud?

POSIVISTIVISM
Meaning exist in the world Knowledge reflects reality

INTERPRETIVISM/ CONSTRUCTIONISM Meaning exist in our interpretation of the world Knowledge is interpretation

PARADIGMS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

TWO BASIC PARADIGMS

POSITIVISTISM

INTERPRETIVISM / CONSTRUCTIVISM

RESEARCH PARADIGM
Research has been described as a systematic investigation. Inquiry whereby data are collected, analysed and interpreted in some way in an effort to "understand, describe, predict or control an educational or psychological phenomenon or to empower individuals in such contexts Exact nature of the definition of research is influenced by the researcher's theoretical framework The theoretical framework is sometimes referred to as the paradigm and influences the way knowledge is studied and interpreted. It is the choice of paradigm that sets down the intent, motivation and expectations for the research. Without deciding on a paradigm as the first step, there is no basis for subsequent choices regarding methodology, methods, literature or research design

RESEARCH PARADIGM
Definition of Paradigm A loose collection of logically related assumptions, concepts, or propositions that orient thinking and research. The philosophical intent or motivation for undertaking a study.

Includes three elements: a belief about the nature of knowledge, a methodology and criteria for validity.

There are a number of theoretical paradigms : Positivist, constructivist, interpretivist, transformative, emancipatory, critical, pragmatism and deconstructivist.

POSITIVIST PARADIGM
Positivism is sometimes referred to as 'scientific method' or 'science research Is based on the rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke, August Comte, and Emmanuel Kant. Reflects a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or outcomes Positivism may be applied to the social world on the assumption that the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a method for studying the social world that is value free, and that explanations of a causal nature can be provided. Positivists aim to test a theory or describe an experience through observation and measurement in order to predict and control forces that surround us

INTERPRETIVIST/CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM
Interpretivist/constructivist approaches to research have the intention of understanding the world of human suggesting that reality is socially constructed. The interpretivist/constructivist researcher tends to rely upon the "participants' views of the situation being studied and recognises the impact on the research of their own background and experiences. Constructivists do not generally begin with a theory rather they generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meanings throughout the research process. The constructivist researcher is most likely to rely on qualitative data collection methods and analysis or a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed methods). Quantitative data may be utilised in a way, which supports or expands upon qualitative data and effectively deepens the description. Importance of the researchers perspective and the interpretative nature of social reality

TRANSFORMATIVE PARADIGM
The transformative paradigm arose during the 1980s and 1990s partially due to dissatisfaction with the existing and dominant research paradigms and practices but also because of a realisation that much sociological and psychological theory which lay behind the dominant paradigms "had been developed from the white, able-bodied male perspective and was based on the study of male subjects Transformative researchers felt that the interpretivist/constructivist approach to research did not adequately address issues of social justice and marginalised peoples. Transformative researchers believe that inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political agenda. Contain an action agenda for reform that may change the lives of the participants, the institutions in which individuals work or live, and the researcher's life. Transformative researchers may utilise qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods in much the same way as the interpretivist/constructivists. However, a mixed methods approach provides the transformative researcher structure for the development of more complete and full portraits of our social world through the use of multiple perspectives and lenses

Allowing for an understanding of greater diversity of values, stances and positions

PRAGMATIC PARADIGM
Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy or reality. Pragmatist researchers focus on the 'what' and 'how' of the research problem The pragmatic paradigm places "the research problem" as central and applies all approaches to understanding the problem With the research question 'central', data collection and analysis methods are chosen as those most likely to provide insights into the question with no philosophical loyalty to any alternative paradigm.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Difference between research methodology and research method:
Research Methodology - Overall approach to research linked to the paradigm or theoretical framework . Research Method -Refers to systematic modes, procedures or tools used for collection and analysis of data.

Is it quantitative research and qualitative research methodology or method?

Both used. The former for research paradigm or theoretical approach to research and the latter for data collection method, analysis and reporting. There is no pure qualitative research methodology

This suggests that the terms qualitative and quantitative refer to the data collection methods, analysis and reporting modes instead of the theoretical approach to the research.

METHODOLOGY AND PARADIGMS

Positivist/ Postpositivist Experimental Quasi-experimental Correlational Reductionism Theory verification Causal comparative Determination Normative Interpretivist/ Constructivist Naturalistic Phenomenological Hermeneutic Interpretivist Ethnographic Multiple participant meanings Social and historical construction Theory generation Symbolic interaction Transformative Critical theory Neo-marxist Feminist Critical Race Theory Freirean Participatory Emancipatory Advocacy Empowerment issue oriented Change-oriented Interventionist Race specific Political Pragmatic Consequences of actions Problem-centred Pluralistic Real-world practice oriented Mixed models

Adapted from Mertens (2005) and Creswell (2003)

CAN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS BE COMBINED

While data collection methods can be combined, a researcher usually aligns philosophically with one of the recognised research paradigms, which proceed from different premises, leading to and seeking different outcomes. A researcher's theoretical orientation has implications for every decision made in the research process, including the choice of method. A mixed-methods approach to research is one that involves both numeric information (e.g., on instruments) as well as text information (e.g., on interviews) so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative information. Combined or mixed-methods research has been identified as a "key element in the improvement of social science. Mixed method research often has greater impact, because figures can be very persuasive to policy-makers whereas stories are more easily remembered and repeated by them for illustrative purposes. While some paradigms may appear to lead a researcher to favour qualitative or quantitative approaches, in effect no one paradigm actually prescribes or prohibits the use of either methodological approach.
Almost inevitably in each paradigm, if the research is to be fully effective, both approaches need to be applied.

MATCHING PARADIGMS AND METHODS

Paradigms, methods and tools Paradigm Positivist/ Postpositivist Methods (primarily) Quantitative. "Although qualitative methods can be used within this paradigm, quantitative methods tend to be predominant . Data collection tools (examples) Experiments Quasi-experiments Tests Scales

Interpretivist/ Constructivist

Qualitative methods predominate Interviews although quantitative methods Observations may also be utilised. Document reviews Visual data analysis

Transformative

Qualitative methods with quantitative and mixed methods. Contextual and historical factors described, especially as they relate to oppression

Diverse range of tools particular need to avoid discrimination. Eg: sexism, racism, and homophobia.

Pragmatic

Qualitative and/or quantitative May include tools from both methods may be employed. positivist and interpretivist Methods are matched to the paradigms. Eg Interviews, specific questions and purpose of observations and testing and the research. experiments.

KNOWLEDGE
POSIVISTIVISM Accurate knowledge exactly reflects the world as it is. INTERPRETIVISM/ CONSTRUCTIVISM Knowledge provides suggestive interpretations by particular people at particular times

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

DIFFERING APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

Research philosophy Research approaches

Research designs

Data collection methods

Time horizons
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Research Philosophy
Research philosophy

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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY OR EPISTEMOLOGY

Broadly speaking the are two views over the nature of knowledge and how it is developed (Epistemology). These are Positivism (scientific method) and Interpretivism.

Note: They are often in warring camps.

Some see these oppositions as false and detrimental to research. Keep flexible!

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POSITIVISM (A.K.A LOGICAL POSITIVISM AND OBJECTIVISM)

Positivists

attempt to mirror the methods of the natural and physical scientists. Through observing reality you can produce laws of the social world which can be generalised from one context to another e.g Laws of Supply and Demand in Positive Economics.

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Positivism

Auguste Comte, 1798-1857

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POSITIVISM OR OBJECTIVISM

Your role is to be an objective analyst, collecting data and interpreting it in a value free way. You are detached, neither affect nor are affected by the subject of your research. Emphasise the quantifiable, the observable, and replication (the ability to repeat research)

INTERPRETIVISM AND PHENOMENOLOGY

Edmund Husserl, 1859-1938

INTERPRETIVISM (E.G. PHENOMENOLOGY) EMPHASISES That the world is too complex to be reduced to a series of law-like generalisations. The uniqueness of people, and circumstances and the constant nature of change. Details matter - in an attempt to dig into deeper layers of reality.

Subjective reality matters.

PARADIGM AND RESEARCH METHOD

The relationship between philosophy and research practice What is the nature of reality?

What kind of knowledge can we have about reality?

How can we investigate reality? What is the picture that we paint of reality?

INTERPRETIVISM COULD BE USED TO STUDY -

Organisational culture layer by layer the visual symbols the mission statement, and the hidden world of taken for granted assumptions which influence thinking, feeling perceptions in the workplace. Warning!

Finding the reality working behind the reality may be too challenging for some!

OBJECTIVIST (POSITIVISM) V. INTERPRETIVISM?

EXERCISE:
Look at the handout and decide where you own research interest falls. Compare column 1 against 2. Is it Objectivist (ie Positivist adopting the scientific method, or Interpretivist?

OBJECTIVIST (POSITIVISM) V. INTERPRETIVISM?

EXERCISE: Think carefully about how your proposed project fits into the 2 Philosophical approaches. In particular ask Are notions of causation an important aspect, or are you seeking to find explanations in order to reach an understanding of a situation? Will knowledge be gained through impartial observation and/or experimentation, or will you have to immerse yourself in the situation and make subjective or value-laden observations?

THE POSITIVIST (OBJECTIVIST) AND PHENOMENOLOGICAL (INTREPRETIVIST) PARADIGMS

RESEARCH APPROACHES

Research approaches

CHOOSING A RESEARCH APPROACH

A deductive approach? You develop a theory and design a strategy to test hypotheses. A close ally to the philosophy of positivism. A scientific approach.

An inductive approach?

You collect data and develop a theory as a result of your data analysis A close ally to the philosophy of phenomenology.

STEPS IN THE LOGIC OF THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

1. Deducing a hypothesis ( a testable proposition between two or more events or concepts) from the theory. (H1,..H2) 2. Expressing the hypothesis in operational term (indicate exactly how the variables are to be measured) Show how the variables relate. 3. Test the operational hypothesis (e.g. experiment)

STEPS IN THE LOGIC OF THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

4. Examine the specific outcome of the inquiry. Predicted outcome (from hypothesis) supports the theory

Contrary outcome (to hypothesis) o contradicts the theory, o or fails to support the theory, o or may be explained by poor research design.

STEPS IN THE LOGIC OF THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

5. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of its findings. 6. Verify the revised theory by going back to stage 1/ and repeat the cycle.

DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

X does occur theory supported

If theory is true

X will occur

Test X

X does not occur theory challenged

A HYPOTHESIS STATES THAT THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO CONCEPTS AND SPECIFIES THE DIRECTION OF THAT RELATIONSHIP.

Age

Gross annual income

KEY TERMS EXPLAINED The elements in the boxes are called concepts. The lines between the boxes are called relationships. Theories are composed of concepts linked by relationships.

VARIABLES

A positive sign shows a positive relationship, e.g. (hours of study rises, exam grades rise)

A negative sign shows a negative relationship, e.g. (Price of houses rises, demand falls)

VARIABLES A variable is a characteristic which has more than one category or value. e.g. Age The effect is called a dependent variable (Y); The assumed cause is called an independent variable (X) An intervening variable (Z) is the means by which X affects Y..

VARIABLES

Education X

job Z

income Y

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EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

Share prices are positively related to the amount spent on advertising, the price of the product, or service, and the number of sales representatives. Emerging stock markets exhibit long term over-reaction patterns. Teenage customers will use more wireless minutes per month if we offer package plans with free downloading of music.

HOW TO DEVELOP HYPOTHESES

They are developed prior to data collection. They often emerge from the literature review, research questions and theory. You need to ask

What group will be examined with this hypothesis?

e.g. males v. females, or different age groups,

and
What variables are being tested?

HOW TO DEVELOP HYPOTHESES

Converting Research Questions into Hypotheses

CONVERTING RQS INTO HYPOTHESES

Exercise Using the handout provided, convert 3 RQs relevant to your own project into Hypotheses. Research Question.. A corresponding hypothesis..

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DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

You need to be able to operationalise variables i.e. to make them measurable and quantifiable. e.g Professionalism product quality or Job satisfaction cannot be measured directly because they are abstract concepts

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DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

A hypothesis must be testable. Often they are formulated on an abstract conceptual level and cannot be tested directly.

You need to operationalise them, top make them concrete.

Often you will need to break down the main hypothesis into 2 or more sub-hypotheses.

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DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

There are steps to go from the most abstract level to the most concrete: CONCEPTS: The building blocks of the hypothesis Which are usually abstract and cannot be measured directly INDICATORS: Phenomena which point to the existence of the concepts VARIABLES: The components of the indicators which can be measured VALUES: The actual units or methods of measurement Of the variables.

DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

There can be more than one indicator or variable or value: CONCEPTS: Poverty INDICATORS: poor living conditions VARIABLES: provision of sanitary facilities VALUES: Numbers of people per bathroom, WC You task could be to set up a questionaire which attempts to measure poverty by asking appropriate questions.

DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

There can be more than one indicator or variable or value: CONCEPTS: Affluence INDICATORS: Rising and high living conditions VARIABLES: Service / tertiary sector growth VALUES: Numbers of second homes, cars per household, private medicine, Private education, chauffeurs! You task could be to set up a questionnaire which attempts to measure affluence by asking appropriate questions.

DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

Now, apply this to your own research Main topic.. CONCEPTS: INDICATORS: VARIABLES: .. VALUES: Now set up a questionnaire which attempts to measure your key concepts by asking appropriate questions.

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DEDUCTION: TESTING THEORY

You need to be able to select a sample of suitable size in order to be able to generalise about the wider community. It would be dangerous to make inferences about other firms from the Job Survey Data in one organisation. NOTE the link between Scientific Method, Deduction and the Quantitative approach

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INDUCTION: BUILDING THEORY

What is the experience of working at a particular firm? We could interview employees on the shop-floor to get a feel for the issues and then analyse the data, and eventually formulate a theory about job satisfaction. With induction theory follows data.
Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

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INDUCTION: BUILDING THEORY

Human beings interpret their world they have consciousness. Sir Francis They are not unthinking research objects who respond like the coffee machine in the corridor to the stimulus of cash injections
Bacon 1561-1626

Humans devise alternative explanations to the orthodox view they have their own stories (narratives).

INDUCTION: BUILDING THEORY

Context matters. A small sample may be appropriate. Qualitative methods acceptable.

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

More likely to find out why X is happening rather than what is happening.

KNOWING YOUR APPROACH

has implications for your strategies

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

What kind of evidence is acceptable/ appropriate.

How such evidence is collected.

How the evidence is interpreted.

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KNOWING YOUR APPROACH

You need to.
Sort out which approaches are NOT and say why.

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626 appropriate

Practical issues matter you may have limited access to certain types of data, or insufficient knowledge of the topic. This will constrain your options.

COMBINING APPROACHES
It may be advantageous to combine methods. If there is a wealth of material from which it is easy to define a hypothesis the choice is the deductive approach. If the field is new and you need to generate data and reflect on the themes, the choice is inductive.

COMBINING APPROACHES: THE CONSTRAINTS

You need to plan a survey and learn software to analyse quantitative data. A high response rate to a questionnaire is not guaranteed. BUT the computer crunches in seconds or less! Inductive work can be labour intensive, too. It may take time for themes and theories to emerge. No guarantees that patterns will emerge.

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RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design

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THE NEED FOR A CLEAR RESEARCH DESIGN

FIRST, be clear about your research questions and objectives.
A research design is a general plan of how you will go about answering your research question(s). It will contain clear objectives derived from the question. You must - specify the data sources. Consider the constraints e.g access, time, location, money, ethical issues.
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THE NEED FOR A CLEAR RESEARCH DESIGN

Be clear about your research question(s) and objectives. You will need to provide valid reasons for all your choices. The justification must be based on your research questions and objectives. Think carefully about every stage!

THE DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

experiment survey case study grounded theory ethnography action research cross-sectional and longitudinal exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies

Note: They are not mutually exclusive

THE RESEARCH PROCESS The figure represents the steps and decisions that has to be made by the researcher to situate paradigms, methodology and data collection tools within the research process