Purpose of Communication: The purpose of a communication

system is to transmit information-bearing signals or baseband signals

through a communication channel separating the transmitter from the
receiver.
Baseband: Baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies
representing the original signal as delivered by a source of information.
Communication Channel: The communication channel may be
a transmission line (as in telephony and telegraphy), an optical fiber (as in
optical communications) or merely free space in which the information-
bearing signal is radiated as an electromagnetic wave (as in radio and
television broadcasting).
The proper utilization of the communication channel requires a shift
of the range of baseband frequencies into other frequency ranges suitable
for transmission, and a corresponding shift back to the original frequency
range after reception.
A shift of the range of frequencies in a signal is accomplished by
using modulation.
Continuous-Wave Modulation
Need For Modulation: Several difficulties are involved in the
propagation of electromagnetic waves at frequencies corresponding to the
audio spectrum. The greatest of these is that for efficient radiation and
reception the transmitting and receiving antennas would have to have
heights comparable to quarter-wavelength of the frequency used. This is 75
m at 1 MHz, in the broadcast band, but at 15 kHz it has increased to 5000
m. A vertical antenna of this size in unthinkable.
There is an even more important argument against transmitting
signal frequencies directly: all sound is concentrated within the range from
20 Hz to 20 kHz, so that all signals from the different sources would be
hopelessly and inseparably mixed up. So it is difficult to retrieve the
original or message signal.
The radiation problem of low frequency can be overcome by using
high frequency carrier signal in modulation process.

Modulating wave and Modulated wave: The baseband signal
is referred to as the modulating wave, and the result of the modulation
process is referred to as the modulated wave.
Modulation is performed at the transmission
end of the communication system.
Modulation: Modulation is defined as the process
by which some characteristic of a carrier is varied
in accordance with a modulating wave (signal).
In the process of modulation, some
characteristic of a high-frequency sine wave (the
carrier) is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the (modulating) signal.
A common form of the carrier is a sinusoidal
wave.
Demodulation: The receiving end of the system, we usually
require the original baseband to be restored. This is accomplished by
using a process known as demodulation, which is reverse of the
modulation process.

Since a common form of the carrier is a sinusoidal wave, in
which case the modulation process referred as continuous-wave
modulation.

Classification of Modulation:
There are two forms of the continuous-wave modulations:
(a) Amplitude modulation (AM), and (b) Angle Modulation.

There are also two forms angle modulations:
(a) Phase modulation (PM) and (b) Frequency
modulation (FM).
Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation (AM) is
defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is varied about
a mean value, linearly with the baseband signal m(t).
Let, a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by
c(t)=A
c
cos(2tf
c
t) (3.1)
where, A
c
is the carrier amplitude and f
c
is the carrier frequency.
Let m(t) denote the baseband signal that carries the specification of the
message. Then, an amplitude modulated (AM) wave may thus be described, in its
most general form, as a function of time as follows:
s(t)=A
c
[1+K
a
m(t)]cos(2tf
c
t) (3.2)
where, K
a
is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity.
The carrier amplitude A
c
and the message signal measured in volts,
which case the amplitude sensitivity K
a
is measured in volt
-1
.
Amplitude Modulation
Fig. 3.1(a) shows a baseband signal m(t),
and Figs. 3.1(b) and (c) show the
corresponding AM wave s(t) for two values
of amplitude sensitivity K
a
and a carrier
amplitude A
c
=1 volt.
We observe that the envelope of
s(t) has essentially the same shape as the
baseband signal m(t) provided that two
requirements are satisfied:
1 ) ( < t m
a
k
1 ) ( > t m
a
k
) (t m
1. The amplitude of K
a
m(t) is always less
than unity, that is,
|K
a
m(t)|<1 for all t (3.3)
When the amplitude sensitivity K
a
of the
modulator is large enough to make for any
t, the carrier wave becomes overmodulated,
resulting in carrier phase reversals whenever
the factor [1+K
a
m(t)] crosses zero. The
modulated wave then exhibits envelope
distortion, as in Fig. 3.1c.
2. The carrier frequency f
c
is much greater than the highest frequency component
W of the message signal m(t), that is
f
c
>>W (3.4)
where, W is the message bandwidth.
If the condition (3.4) is not satisfied, an envelope cannot be visualized
satisfactorily.
From Eq. (3.2), we find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t) is given by
)] ( ) ( [
2
)] ( ) ( [
2
) (
c
f f M
c
f f M
c
A
a
k
c
f f
c
f f
c
A
f S + + + + + = o o
Fig. 3.2 shows the spectrum of baseband signal M(f), which is band-limited to
the interval W s f s W , and amplitude modulated signal S(f).
Fig. 3.2 (a) Spectrum of baseband signal, and (b) Spectrum of AM.
This spectrum consists of two delta functions weighted by the factor A
c
/2 and
occurring at f
c
, and two versions of the baseband spectrum translated in frequency
by f
c
and scaled in amplitude by k
a
A
c
/2.
From the spectrum of Fig. 3.2, we note the following:
1. T spectrum of the message signal m(t) for negative frequencies
extending from W to 0 becomes completely visible for positive (i. e., measurable)
frequencies, provided that the carrier frequency satisfies the conditions f
c
>W.

2. For positive frequencies, the portion of the spectrum of an AM
wave lying above the carrier frequency f
c
is referred to as upper sideband, whereas
the symmetric portion below f
c
is referred as the lower sideband.
For negative frequencies , the upper sideband is represented by the portion
of the spectrum below - f
c
and the lower sideband by the portion above f
c
.
3. For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component
of the AM wave equals f
c
+W, and the lowest frequency component equals f
c
-W.
The difference between these two frequencies defines the transmission
bandwidth B
T
for an AM wave, which is exactly twice the message bandwidth W,
B
T
=(f
c
+W)-(f
c
-W)=2W
The condition f
c
>W ensures that the sidebands do not overlap.
Single-Tone Modulation
Single Tone Signal: The signal which has only one frequency is called single tone
signal.
Consider a modulating wave m(t) that consists of a single tone or frequency
component and a carrier wave c(t) can be written as follows:
m(t)=A
m
cos(2tf
m
t) c(t)=A
c
cos(2tf
c
t)
where, A
m
and A
c
are the amplitude of modulating wave and carrier wave, and f
m

and f
c
are the frequency of modulating wave and carrier wave.
The corresponding AM wave is therefore given by:
s(t)= A
c
[1+K
a
A
m
cos(2tf
m
t)]cos(2tf
c
t)=A
c
[1+cos(2tf
m
t)]cos(2tf
c
t)
(3.7)
Where, modulation factor, =K
a
A
m
To avoid envelope distortion due to overmodulation, the modulation
factor must be kept below unity (i.e. <1).

Fig. 3.3 illustrate the time-domain (left-side) and frequency-domain (right-
side) characteristics of standard amplitude modulation produced by a single-tone (a)
Modulating wave, (b) Carrier wave, and (c) AM wave. [where, <1]
Let A
max
and A
min
denote the maximum and
minimum values of the envelope of the modulated wave.
Then, from Eq. (3.7) we get
) 1 (
) 1 (
min
max

+
=
c
A
c
A
A
A
min
max
min
max
A A
A A
+

=
From the previous equation,
we obtain:
Expressing the product of the two cosines in Eq. (3.7) as the sum of two sinusoidal
waves, one having frequency f
c
+f
m
and the other having frequency f
c
-f
m
, we get
] ) ( 2 cos[
2
1
] ) ( 2 cos[
2
1
) 2 cos( ) ( t
m
f
c
f
c
A t
m
f
c
f
c
A t
c
f
c
A t s + + + = t t t
It is seen from above equation that the first term is identical of carrier wave
and the two additional terms are produced two sideband outlined. The frequency of
the LSB is f
c
-f
m
and the frequency of the USB is f
c
+f
m
.
)] ( ) ( [
4
1
)] ( ) ( [
4
1
)] ( ) ( [
2
1
) (
m
f
c
f f
m
f
c
f f
c
A
m
f
c
f f
m
f
c
f f
c
A
c
f f
c
f f
c
A f S
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + =
o o
o o
o o
The Fourier transform of s(t) is therefore
Power Relation in the AM Wave
In practice, the AM wave s(t) is a voltage or current wave. In either case, the average
power delivered to a R
L
=1 O resistor by s(t) is comprised of three components:
O = = = = 1 where,
2
2
1
2
2 2
) 2 / (
Power, Carrier
L
R
c
A
L
R
c
A
L
R
c
A
c
P
O = = = = = 1 where,
8
2 2
8
2 2 2
) 2 2 / (
Power, LSB and USB
L
R
c
A
L
R
c
A
L
R
c
A
LSB
P
USB
P

)
2
2
1 ( )
2
2
1 (
2
2
8
2 2
2
2
2
Power, Total

+ = + = + = + + =
c
P
c
A
c
A
c
A
LSB
P
USB
P
c
P
t
P
The ratio of the total sideband power to the total power in the modulated
wave is equal to


which depends only on the modulation factor .
2
2
1

+ =
c
P
t
P
Example: A 0.2 kW carrier is modulated to a modulation factor 0.6. Calculate:
(a) Amplitude of carrier wave, (b) maximum and minimum values of
modulated wave, and (c) low sideband or upper sideband power and (d) total
power of the modulated wave. (Assume load resistance R
L
= 1 O).
Solution: (a) we know that V 20 200 2 2 ;
2
2
1
= = = =
c
P
c
A
c
A
c
P
V 8 4 . 0 20 ) 1 (
min
V; 32 6 . 1 20 ) 1 (
max
(b) = = = = = + =
c
A A
c
A A
W 18
8
400 36 . 0
8
2
) 20 (
2
) 6 . 0 (
Power, LSB (c) =

=
LSB
P
kW 36 . 2 )
2
2
6 . 0
1 ( 200 )
2
2
1 ( Power, Total (d) = + = + =

c
P
t
P
Example: A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kW when the modulation
percentage is 60. How much of this is carrier power?
)
2
2
1 ( Power, Total that, know We

+ =
c
P
t
P
Solution: Given, P
t
=10 kW and =0.6, We have to find out, P
c
=?
kW 47 . 8
2
2
) 6 . 0 (
1
kW 10
2
2
1
=
+
=
+
=

t
P
c
P
Example: A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier unmodulated,
and 10.125 kW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the
modulation factor.
)
2
2
1 ( Power, Total that, know We

+ =
c
P
t
P
Solution: Given, P
t
=10.125 kW and P
c
=9 kW, We have to find out,

=?
5 . 0 ) 1
9
125 . 10
( 2 ) 1 ( 2 = = =
c
P
t
P

Current Calculation
Let I
c
be the unmodulated current and I
t
the total or modulated current pf an AM
transmitter, both beings rms values. If R
L
is the resistance in which these currents
flow then
2
2
1
2
2

+ = =
L
R
c
I
L
R
t
I
c
P
t
P
2
2
1

+ =
c
I
t
I
2
2
1

+ =
c
I
t
I
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
2
2
c
I
t
I

Example: The antenna current of an AM broadcast transmitter, modulated to a

modulation factor 49% by an audio sine wave, is 11 A. It increases to 12 A as a
result of simultaneous modulation by another audio sine wave. What is the
modulation factor due to this second wave?
2
2
1

+ =
c
I
t
I
Solution: we know that,
A 58 . 10
) 2 /
2
4 . 0 ( 1
11
) 2 /
2
( 1
=
+
=
+
=

t
I
c
I
757 . 0 1
2
58 . 10
12
2 1
2
2 = = =
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
I
t
I

For the second case: We obtain as follows

Generation of AM waves
The AM waves can be generated by using
two devices namely (a) the square-law modulator,
and (b) the switching modulator.

To implement these two modulator, a
nonlinear element is required. And these two
devices are well-suited for low power modulation
purpose.
Square-Law Modulator
A square-law modulator requires three features:
(a) A means of summing the carrier and modulating waves,
(b) A nonlinear element, and
(c) A band-pass filter for extracting the desired modulation
products.
These features of the modulator are illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
Nonlinear Devices: Semiconductor diodes and transistors are the most common
nonlinear devices used for implementing square-law modulators.
where a
1
and a
2
are constant.
When a nonlinear element such as a diode is suitably biased and
operated in a restricted portion of its characteristic curve, that is, the signal
applied to the diode is relatively weak, we find that the transfer characteristic of
the diode-load resistor combination can be represented closely by a square law:
) 13 . 3 ( ) (
2
1 2
) (
1 1
) (
2
t v a t v a t v + =
The input voltage v
1
(t) consists of the carrier wave plus the modulating
wave, that is
) 14 . 3 ( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
1
t m t
c
f
c
A t v + = t
Substituting Eq. (3.14) in (3.13), the resulting voltage developed across the
primary winding of the transformer is given by:
2
)] ( ) 2 cos( [
2
)] ( ) 2 cos( [
1
) (
2
t m t
c
f
c
A a t m t
c
f
c
A a t v + + + = t t
) 15 . 3 ( ) 2 (
2
cos
2
2
) (
2
2
) (
1
) 2 cos( )] (
1
2
2
1 [
1
) (
2
t
c
f
c
A a t m a t m a t
c
f t m
a
a
c
A a t v t t + + + + =
Comparing Eq. (3.15) with the AM wave as Eq. (3.16), it is seen that he first term
in Eq. (3.15) is the desired AM wave with K
a
=(2a
2
/a
1
).
) 15 . 3 ( ) 2 cos( )] (
1
2
2
1 [
1
: term First t
c
f t m
a
a
c
A a t +
The remaining three terms are unwanted terms that must be removed by filtering.
) 2 (
2
cos
2
2
) (
2
2
) (
1
: terms Other t
c
f
c
A a t m a t m a t + +
) 16 . 3 ( ) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) ( : wave AM t
c
f t m
a
K
c
A t s t + =
The unwanted terms may be removed from v
2
(t) by designing the
tuned filter at the modulator output of Fig. 3.5 to have a mid-band f
c
and
band-width 2W which is satisfy the requirement f
c
>2W.
The above equation can be written as follows:
Switching Modulator
Details of the switch modulator are
shown in the following Fig. 3.5 (a),
where it is assumed that the carrier
wave c(t) applied to the diode is large
in amplitude, so that it swings right
across the characteristic curve of the
diode.
We assume that the diode acts as an
ideal switch, that is, it presents zero
impedance when it is forward-biased
[corresponding to c(t)>0).
We may thus approximate the transfer
characteristic of the diode-load resistor
combination by a piecewise-linear
characteristic, as shown in Fig. 3.7b.
Accordingly, for an input voltage v
1
(t)
consisting of the sum of the carrier and
the message signal:
) 18 . 3 ( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
1
t m t
c
f
c
A t v + = t
where, |m(t)|<<A
c
,
The Expression for the load voltage v
2
(t) is given by:
) 19 . 3 (
0 ) ( , 0
0 ) ( ), (
1
) (
2

<
>
=
t c
t c t v
t v
We may express Eq. (3.19) mathematically as :
) 20 . 3 ( ) ( )] ( ) 2 cos( [ ) (
2
t
p
g t m t
c
f
c
A t v + = t
where g
p
(t) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one-half, and period
T=1/f
c
, as in Fig. 3.8.
) 21 . 3 (
1
)] 1 2 ( 2 cos[
1 2
1
) 1 ( 2
2
1
) (

+ =
n
n t
c
f
n
n
t
p
g t
t
Representing this g
p
(t) by
its Fourier series, we have:
Therefore, substituting Eq. (3.21) in (3.20), we find that the load voltage
v
2
(t) consists of the sum of two components:
1. The components


which is the desired AM wave with amplitude sensitivity
k
a
=4/tA
c
. The switching modulator is therefore made more sensitivity by
reducing the carrier amplitude A
c
; however, it must be maintained large
enough to make the diode act like an ideal switch.
) 2 cos( )] (
4
1 [
2
t
c
f t m
c
A
c
A
t
t
+
2. Unwanted components, the spectrum of which contains delta
functions at 0, 2f
c
, and 4f
c
so on, and which occupy frequency intervals of
width 2W centered at 0, 3f
c
, 5f
c
, and so on, where W is the message
bandwidth.
The unwanted terms are removed from the load voltage v
2
(t) by
means of a band-pass filter with mid-band frequency f
c
, and bandwidth
2W, provided that f
c
>2W.
Envelope-Detector
The process of demodulation is used to recover the original
modulating wave from the incoming modulated wave; in effect,
demodulation is the reverse of the modulation process.

The demodulation of an AM wave can be accomplished
using various devices; here, we describe a simple and yet highly
effective device known as the envelop-detector.

An envelop detector of the series type is shown in Fig. 3.7,
which consists of a diode and a resistor-capacitor (RC) filter. The
operation of this envelope detector is as follows.
On a positive half-cycle of
the input signal, the diode is forward-
biased and the capacitor C charges up
rapidly to the peak value of the input
signal.

When the input signal falls
below this value, the diode becomes
reverse-biased and the capacitor C
discharges slowly through the load
resistor R
l
.

The discharging process
continues until the next positive half-
cycle. When the input signal becomes
greater than the voltage across the
capacitor, the diode conducts again
and the process is repeated.

It is assume that the AM wave applied to the envelope detector is supplied
by a voltage source of internal impedance R
s
. The charging time constant R
s
C must
be short compared with the carrier period 1/f
c
, that is,
So that the capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to
the positive peak when the diode is conducting.
The discharging time constant R
l
C must be long enough to ensure that
the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor R
l
between positive
peaks of the carrier wave, but not so long that the capacitor will not discharge at
the maximum rate of change of the modulating wave, that is
Where, W is the message bandwidth.
The result is that the capacitor voltage or detector output is very nearly the
same as the envelop of the AM wave, as illustrated in Fig. 3.7 c. The detector output
usually has a small ripple (not shown in Fig. 3.7c) at the carrier frequency; this ripple
is easily removed by filtering.