FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS

GROUP TEN
SUMMARIZE OF OVERALL SYLLABUS
MUHAMAD ARIF BIN NASARUDDIN D20091035123
HASNOR IZZATI BT CHE RAZALI
D20091035102
MOHD AIDIL UBAIDILLAH BIN RAZILAN
D20091035132
NORHAMIDAH BT ROHANI
D20091036643
NUR HAFIZAH BT ZAHARI
D20091035133
NOR SHARLIDA BT MOHAMAD JALAILUDIN
D20091035098



CHAPTER 1
SET
Set is collection of elements.
Venn Diagram can represent set :
DO YOU STILL REMEMBER?
Q : n(A) represent of what?
A : Number of element of set

Q : and { } indicate of what?
A : Empty set

Q :How we can say two set are equal set?
A : If element in both set are equal

Q : What is subset?
A : When all element in one set contain in other set
TYPE OF SUBSET
Proper subset
Symbol :
Example : C B A

Improper subset
Symbol :
Example : D E



D D=E E
From the diagram identify :




The Universal Set
Clue > set that contains all elements in the discussion
Answer = { 4,3,8,9,22,10,13 }
The element of complement Set for set A
Clue > Set that contain all elements in universal set
which are not element in A
A = { 9,10,22,13 }
Set of intersection between two set(A B)
Clue > all elements are common elements for both set
A B = { 4,3 }
Element of union of two set(A B)
Clue > every elements in both sets
A B = { 3,4,8,9,10 }




ADDITIONAL PRINCIPLE
Two sets

n (A B) = n(A) + n(B) n (A B)

Three sets

n (A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n (A B) -
n (A C) - n (B C) + n (A B C )
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Donated by A x B

Example
If A = {1,2} and B = {d,c}. What is element of A
x B ?

Answer
(A x B) = {(1,d),(1,c),(2,d),(2,c)}

CHAPTER 2
REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
CHAPTER 2 : REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Real Number Set
(R)
Q Q

Ratio Set Number
(Q)
An Integer number
that can be divided
by 1. Eg : 5,7,9
Decimal ended
number. Eg : 1.25
Decimal number
repeated. Eg :
0.11111

Non Ratio Set
Number (H or Q)
Decimal numbers
are and not
repeated.
Eg :
0.56783315678
Real Set Number
(W)
W = {0,1,2,3,}
Integer (Z)
Z = {-2,-
1,0,1,2,}
Natural Numbers
(N)
Count number
N = {1,2,3,4,}


Prime Number Set
positive integer
number except 1
that can be divided
by 1 and its own
number

Composite Number
Set
Positive number
except 1 and not a
prime number

NUMBER LINE
Represent all real number.
Example :




ABSOLUTE VALUE


a Equal to

a when a 0

-a when a < o



PROPERTY OF REAL NUMBER
Type of Property Explanation
Closure A + B = C
(A)(B) = C
Where C is real number
Commutative C + D = D + C
(C)(D) = (D)(C)
Associative (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(AB)(C) = (A)(BC)
Distributive A(B + C) = AB + AC
A(B C) = AB AC
Identity C + 0 = 0 + C = C
D(1) = (1)D = D
Inverse A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A

INEQUALITY





Symbol


Meaning

>

More than


<

Less than





More than or equal





Less than or equal

INTERVAL
Closure interval
{ x I a x b } = [a,b]
Open interval
{ x I a < x < b } = (a,b)
Half open interval and half closure interval
{ x I a x < b } = [a,b)
Infinite interval
{ x I x > a } = (a,+ )

EXPONENT,
LOGARITHM AND
RADICAL
CHAPTER 3:
DEFINITION 1
(positive integer),
+
e e For all a R and n Z
........
n factors of a
a a a a
n
a =
a to the power of n
a = base
n = exponent or power or index
a
n
= an exponential expression


DEFINITION 2
, For all a R and n Z e e
1 , 0
... , 0
1
n
n
n
n
a n
a a a a a n
a
a

= =

= >

DEFINITION 3

If a is a real number, m and n are integers,




n
m
a
( )
m
n
a =
n
m
a =
Ratio index


1.

2.
n m
n
m
a
a
a

m n m n
a a a
+
=


3.
( )
mn
n
m
a a =
n n n
b a ab = ) (
n
n
n
b
a
b
a
=
|
.
|

\
|

4.
5.
, 0 b =
DEFINITION
If a, n e R
+
and n = a
x
, then log
a
n = x
where a 0.
If a=10, log
10
n = x



log 1
b
b =
log
x
b
n x n b = =
=
LOGARITHM
Laws of logarithm

If a, M, N e R+ and p e R, then

a)
= MN
a
log
log log
a a
M N +
=
p
a
M log
M p
a
log
c)


b)
=
N
M
a
log
log log
a a
M N
DEFINITION
Radical or surd is a non-ratio number in the
form where n, b are real and b > 0.

a) MULTIPLICATION OF RADICAL
b) DIVIDING OF RADICAL
c) ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF RADICAL
d) DENOMINATORS THAT HAS RADICAL

n
b

CAUTION

x b = ab a
=
a a
b
b
c ( ) = a b b a c b
TO RATIONALIZE EXPRESSIONS INVOLVING
SURDS

When surds occur in quotients, it is
customary to rewrite the quotient so that
the denominator is not in surds form. This
process is called rationalization of
denominator.

RATIONALIZING THE
DENOMINATOR
Rationalize the denominator means the
denominator contains no square roots.

Rationalizing the multiplier with the
conjugate of the original denominator.

In rationalizing the denominator of a
quotient, be sure to multiply both the
numerator and the denominator by the
same expression.

CONJUGATE

a b a b +
a b a b +
CHAPTER 4


COMPLEX NUMBER
THE IMAGINARY UNIT I

The imaginary unit i is defined as i = , where i
2

= -1

1
Using the imaginary unit i, we can express
the square root of any negative number as
a real multiple of i.
For example,
16
16 i =
= 4i


Any number of the form z = a + bi , therefore a is called
the real part of the number and b is called the imaginary
part of the number .

The sum of a real number and imaginary number
produces a COMPLEX NUMBER




Definition

EQUALITY OF TWO COMPLEX NUMBERS

For two complex numbers = a + bi and
= c + di . Therefore, if



a = c and b = d.

1
z
2
z
2 1
z z =
COMPLEX CONJUGATE OF A COMPLEX
NUMBER
The complex conjugate of a complex number, a + bi is
a bi and a conjugate of a bi is a + bi.
The multiplication of complex conjugates gives a real
number.
(a + bi) (a - bi) = a
2
+ b
2
(a bi) (a + bi) = a
2
+ b
2


This fact is used to simplify the expressions where the
denominator of a quotient is complex.


ADDING AND SUBTRACTING COMPLEX
NUMBERS

Complex numbers can add together by adding the real
parts and then adding the imaginary parts.
You can subtract one complex number from another by
subtracting the real parts and then subtracting the
imaginary parts.
So:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
(a + bi) (c + di) = (a c) + (b d)i


MULTIPLYING ONE COMPLEX NUMBER BY
ANOTHER
To multiply two complex numbers
together, apply the rules of algebra.

So :
(a + bi) (c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi
= ac + (ad + bc)i bd

= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
ARGAND DIAGRAM
Any complex number z = a + bi can be represented by any
ordered pair (a, b) and hence plotted on xy-axes with the
real part measured along x-axis and the imaginary part
along the y-axis.The graphical representation of the
complex number field is called an Argand diagram.

A
(a,b)
THE LENGTH OA IS CALLED THE MODULUS OF THE COMPLEX
NUMBER A + BI AND IS WRITTEN A + BI SO THAT

A + BI = Z =

u
z
Im (y)
Re (x)
O
a
b
2 2
) ( ) ( b a +
The angle u is called the argument of a + bi and is
written


1
tan
b
a

| |
|
\ .
Arg (a + bi) = u = , t < u s t
QUARTER 2
QUARTER 1


u = +

u =
QUARTER 3

QUARTER 4


u = -

u =
1
tan
b
a

| |
|
\ .
1
tan
b
a

| |
|
\ .
1
tan
b
a

| |
|
\ .
1
tan
b
a

| |
|
\ . 180
o
180
o
POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Given that z = a + bi, as shown:
a = |z| cos u
b = |z| sin u

u
|z|
x
(a,b)
y
z = |z| cos u + (|z| sin u)i
= |z| (cos u + i sin u)

For clarity, we write |z| as r. Thus, z = a + bi can be written as;

z = r (cos u + i sin u)

This is called the Polar Form of a + bi. In contrast, a + bi is
called the Cartesian Form of z.

COORDINATE
GEOMETRY
CHAPTER 5
CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINT
By using Pythhogoras Theorem:







PQ
2
= PR
2
+ RQ
2

(x
2
,y
2
)

(x
1
,y
1
)


(x
2
,y
1
)

R
d
Q
P
d =
MIDDLE POINT COORDINATE

Midpoint (m)



m=



DIVIDING POINT WITH RATIO
Inside Dividing point Outside Dividing point
m
n
B(x
2 ,
y
2
)
A(x
1 ,
y
1
)
P=(x
,
y )
m
n
A(x
1 ,
y
1
)
B(x
2 ,
y
2
)
Q=(x
,
y )
GRADIENT LINE
Q(x
2,
y
2
)
P(x
1,
y
1
)
m
m=
Positive gradient Negative gradient
Where
x
2
x
1

STRAIGHT- LINE EQUATION
Gradient Type



Interception Type



General Type



y = mx +c
ax+by+c =0
m= gradient
c= interception
at y-axis
a= interception
at x-axis
b= interception
at y-axis
With a,b,c
constant
THE NEAREST POINT TO STRAIGHT LINE
ax+bx+c=0
(h,k)
Q
P
TRIANGLES AND SQUARES AREA


Triangles Area Squares Area
CHAPTER 6

FUNCTION AND
GRAPH
52
53
RELATION AND FUNCTION
Types of Relation
There are 4 types of relation :
i) One to one
- each element in set X is connected to an element in set
Y




1

2

3
1

4

9
X
Y
>
>
>
is the square of
54
(ii) Many to one



0

1

4
-2

-1

1
2
Y
X is the square root of
>
>
>
>
55
(iii) One to many
(iv) Many to many
a


b

c

d

e
f
a

b
c

d
1
2
3
4
5
6

Function
A function is a special case of a relation which
takes every element of one set (domain) and
assigns to it one and only one element of a
second set (range).

Therefore,
i) one to one
ii) many to one

Relations are function
57
Vertical Line Test :
To test if a graph displayed is a function.
The graph is a function if each vertical line drawn through the domain
cuts the graph at only one point.
Vertical lines are drawn parallel to the y-axis
58
Domain and Range
Domain of f(x) is the set of values of x for which f(x) is defined.
Range of f(x) is the set of values of y for which elements in the domain
mapped.
We can evaluate the domain and range by :
(i) Graph (ii) Algebraic approach
59
Basic shape of a function
(i)Quadratic function
x
0
a) f(x) = x
2

b) f(x) = -x
2






f(x)
x
0
f(x)
60
(ii) cubic function.
a) f(x) = x
3

f(x)
b) f(x) = -x
3

f(x)
x x
0 0
61
(iv) Reciprocal function


f(x)
x
0
a) y =
f(x)
x
0
b) y =
1
x
1
x

62
(v)Absolute value function, |f(x)|
0
x
f(x)
0
x
f(x)
2
1 2
b) f(x) = |x
2
-3x + 2|
a) f(x) = |x|
6
3

ADD, SUBTRACT, DIVIDE AND MULTIPLY TWO
FUNCTIONS.
We can combine two or more functions in a
number of ways.

Addition
f(x) + g(x) = g(x) + f(x)
Substraction
f(x) - g(x) = g(x) - f(x)
Multiplication
f(x)g(x) = g(x)f(x)


64
This can be represented in an
arrow
diagram:
x g(x)
f[g(x)]
g
f
g f
65
This can be represented in an
arrow
diagram:
x f(x)
g[f(x)]
f
g
66
INVERSE FUNCTION

If f :x y is a function that maps x to y, then the inverse function is denoted
by
where
is a function that maps y back to x.
x y
Note :

=
1
( ) f x
1
f

1
f

1
f

f
1
f

67
An inverse function of f exists only if the function f is a
one to one function.

Method to test whether a function is 1-1 :

i. Algebraic approach.
If ,
then


1 2
( ) ( ) f x f x =
1 2
x x =
68
If the horizontal line intersects the graph of the function only once , then
the function is one to- one.
one-to-one
Not one-to-one
ii) Horizontal line test ( graphical approach)
a) b)
The horizontal line
intersects
the graph at one point.
The horizontal line
intersects
the graph at two points.
69
and
Method Of Finding The Inverse Function
1) Using Formula
2) By substitution
1
[ ( )] f f x x

=
1 1
1
1 1 1
( )
[ ( )]
( )
f f
f f x x
f g g f

=
=
=
1
[ ( )] f f x x

=
CIRCLE
Standard Equation of center (0,0).

Standard Equation of center (h,k).

General Equation.



Radius =
Center =


2 2 2
x y r + =
2 2 2
( ) ( ) x h y h r + =
2 2
2 2 0 x y gx fy c + + + + =
( , ) g f
2 2
r g f c = +
TRIGONOMETRY
CHAPTER 7
Generally the diagram above can be formulated as
the diagram below
P
R


QR
PQ
PR
QR
PR
PQ
= =
= =
= =
adjacent
opposite
tan
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos
hypotenuse
opposite
sin
u
u
u
Q
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS AND IDENTITIES
From the diagram:

cosec u = =
u sin
1
y
z
sec u =
u cos
1
=
x
z
cot u =
u tan
1
=
y
x



sin (90
0
- u) = cos u

90
0
- u
z
y
x
u
cos (90
0
- u) = sin u
tan (90
0
- u) = cot u

EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE OF SIDES 2 UNIT IN LENGTH


sin 60
0
=
2
3
cos 60
0
=
2
1
tan 60
0
=
1
3
sin 30
0
=
2
1
cos 30
0
=
2
3
tan 30
0
=
3
1
3
60
0

2
2
1 1
60
0

30
0

Trigonometric Ratios of Particular Angles
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
sin 45
0
=
2
1
cos 45
0
=
2
1
tan 45
0
= 1
45
0

45
0

2
1
1
POSITIVE ANGLE





sin u All



cos u
tan u
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
cos
2
u + sin
2
u = 1
1 + tan
2
u= sec
2
u
cot
2
u + 1 = cosec
2
u
COMPOUND ANGLE
( ) B sin A cos B cos A sin B A sin + = +
( ) B sin A sin B cos A cos B A cos = +
( ) B sin A cos - B cos A sin B A sin =
( )
cos A B cos A cos B sin A sin B = +
( )
B A tan tan 1
B tan A tan
B A tan

DOUBLE ANGLE
A cos A sin 2 2A sin =
A 2sin - 1
1 - A 2cos
A sin - A cos 2A cos
2
2
2 2
=
=
=
A tan - 1
A tan 2
2A tan
2
=
FACTOR FORMULAE

2
B - A
sin
2
B A
sin 2 B sin A sin i.
+
=

2
B - A
cos
2
B A
sin 2 B sin A sin ii.
+
= +
A B A - B
iii. cos A cos B 2 cos cos
2 2
+
+ =

2
B - A
sin
2
B A
sin 2 B cos A cos iv.
+
=
CHAPTER 8


POLYNOMIALS AND
RATIONAL FUNCTION
8.0 POLYNOMIALS
8.1 Polynomials
8.3 Partial
Fractions
8.2 Remainder Theorem,
Factor Theorem and Zeroes of
Polynomials
POLYNOMIALS

1
1 1 0
( ) ... ; 0
n n
n n n
P x a x a x a x a a

= + + + + =
n Z
+
e
Where the coefficients

are real numbers and
1 2
, , ,...,
0 n
a a a a
MONOMIAL,BINOMIAL,POLYNOMIAL.
Name Example
Monomial
Binomial
Polynomial
3
2x x
4
x
2
5 2 1 x x +
OPERATION OF POLYNOMIAL
4 3 2
( ) 2 3 1 f x x x x = + +
4 3 2
( ) 1 f x x x x = + +
4 3 2
( ) 3 2 4 2 f x x x x = + +
4 2
( ) 2 f x x x = +
Addition and subtraction:
ADDITION SUBTRACTION
For example, given that,
86
If P(x) is a polynomial of degree m and

Q(x) is a polynomial of degree n,

then product

P(x)Q(x) is a polynomial of degree (m + n)

Note
Multiplication
( ) ( ) P x Q x
Division
synthetic division:
ex: P(x)= , ( )

2 2 5 8 17 6
0 4 2 20 6 +
2 1 10 3 0
Remainder
If zero , divider is the root.
use its root to divide the function
4 3 2
2 5 8 17 6 x x x x + +
2 x+
long division,
ex:
4 3 2
2 2 5 8 17 6 x x x x x + + +
Use its factor to divide the
function.
3 2
2 9 10 3 x x x + + +
4 3
2 4 x x
3 2
9 8 17 6 x x x
3 2
9 18 x x
2
10 17 6 x x
2
10 20 x x
3 6 x
3 6 x
89
divisor (quotient) + remainder
the division of
polynomials can be expressed in the form
or


P(x R( x )
R( x )
D
)
D(x)
P( x )
Q( x )
Q( x )
( x )
D( x )
= +
= +

8.2 REMAINDER THEOREM, FACTOR THEOREM
AND ZEROES OF POLYNOMIALS

Generally,when is divided by x-a,let the quotient be
Q(x) and the remainder R
then,
substitute ,

this the remainder theorem,
when a polynomial P(x) is divided by x-a, the remainder
is P(a).

( ) P x
x a =
( ) 0 P a R = +
( ) R P a =
From the remainder theorem, the remainder when P(x) is
divided by x-a is P(a).

if P(a)=0 then the remainder is zero.

so, P(a)=0 x-a is a factor of P(x)
is the factor theorem where a is called a zero of P(x)=0.


8.3 Partial fractions
a)linear factors

b)quadratic factors

c)repeated factors

2 3
(3 4)( 2) 3 4 2
x A B
x x x x

+
+
2 2
2 3
(3 4)( 2) 3 4 2
x A Bx C
x x x x
+
+
+
2 2
2 3
(3 4)( 2) 3 4 2 ( 2)
x A B C
x x x x x

+ +
+ +
RATIONAL FUNCTION
The quotient of 2 polynomial functions:




Where, is the domain of function.
( )
( )
( )
g x
f x
h x
=
( ) h x
HOW TO SKETCH THE RATIONAL FUNCTION
GRAPH?
From the , determine:

Domain of the graph
Vertical asymptotes
Horizontal asymptotes
Get the value of from right and left domain,
which are:
or
Then, sketch the graph

( )
( )
( )
g x
f x
h x
=
( ) 0 h x =
( ) f x
( ) f x + ( ) f x
1. Equal Vectors
Two vectors are equal if they have the same
magnitude and the same direction
If a is any nonzero vector, then a , the negative of a is
defined to be the vector having the same magnitude as a but
oppositely directed.
a
-a
2. Negative Vector
If a and b are any two vectors, then the sum a + b is the vector
determined as follows :
Position the vector b so that its initial point coincides with the
terminal point of a. The vector a + b is represented by the arrow
from the initial point of a to the terminal point of b.
3. Addition Of Vectors
b
a
a+b
A
B
AB a b = +
= resultant vector
CHAPTER 9

VECTOR
:The magnitude of = ai + bj
is

2 2
v a b = +
Magnitude of a vector
v
6. Modulus of a vector
The modulus (length) of a vector is its magnitude
The modulas of vector AB is denoted by the
Symbol .The length (modulus) of vector is
denoted by the symbol .
AB
a
a
The zero vector, donated by 0, has magnitude zero.
Contrary to all the vector, it has no specific direction
7. Zero Vector
Two non-zero vector and parallel if one is a scalar
multiple of the other,That is , is a scalar.
8. Parallel vector
a b =

a
b
1. Vector In Two Dimension
The position vector of any point P(a, b,)
is ai + bj
P
x
y
Vector Operation

i) Magnitude : The magnitude or length of
is

ii) Addition and : If and ,then
Subtraction
= (a
1
+ a
2
)i + (b
1
+ b
2
)j
= (a
1
a
2
)i + (b
1
b
2
)j

iii) Scalar multiplication : If k is a scalar and
= ai + bj a vector,then
k = (ka)i + (kb)j



2 2
v = a b +
v a b = +
i j
1 1 1
v a b = +
i j
2 2 2
v a b = +
i j
1
2
v v +
1
2
v v
v
v
iv) Unit Vector
If =xi + yj then,the unit vector in the
direction of

Is
2 2
a x y
a
a
x y
+
= =
+
a
a
i j
x
y
z
The position vector of any point P(a, b, c)
is ai + bj + ck
a
b
c
P(a, b, c)
2. Vector In Three Dimension
i) Magnitude : The magnitude or length of is =

ii) Addition and : If = a
1
i + b
1
j + c
1
k and = a
2
i + b
2
j + C
2
k ,then
Subtraction
= (a
1
+ a
2
)i + (b
1
+ b
2
)j + ( c
1 +
c
2
)k

= (a
1
a
2
)i + (b
1
b
2
)j + ( c
1


c
2
)k


iii) Scalar multiplication : If n is a scalar and = ai + bj +ck a vector,then
n = (na)i + (nb)j + (nc)k

iv) Unit Vector : if then,The unit vector in the direction

Is





2
1
2
1
2
1
c b a + +
a x y z = + +
2 2 2
a x y z
a
a
x y z
+ +
= =
+ +
Vector operation
v v
1
v
2
v
1 2
v v +
1 2
v v
v
v
i j k
i j k

The scalar product(dot product) of two vectors
and is denoted by and defined as




Where is the angle between and
a b -
cos a b a b u - =
a b
u
a b
SCALAR PRODUCT
Rule 1
If two vector and are parallel, then
the angle between the two vectors is
eithor 0
o
or 180
o
(i.e the vector are
parallel and in the same direction )
a
b
Rule 2
For unlike parallel vector (i.e the vector are parallel but in
the opposite direction)
b
b
a
a
Angle between and is
a
b
0
180
a
b
0
cos180 a b a b - =
a b =
Rule 3
If two vector a and b are perpendicular, then the angle between
the two vector is 90 , therefore
cos90
o
a b a b - =
0 =
a
b
Properties of Scalar
Product
a b b a - = -
( ) ) a b c a b c a b c - = - - =
2
a a a - =
( ) a b c a b a c - + = - + -
( ) ( ) ( ) m a b ma b a b m - = - = -
a b a b - =
if and only if parallel to
b
a
if and only if is perpendicular to
0 a b - = a b


The vector product is also known as cross product
because the result of the vector product is a vector.
Let and are two vector in a plane. Vector product
defined as


Where is the angle between and
a
b
sin a b a b u =
a b
u
VECTOR PRODUCT
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2

a b x y z
x y z
y z x z x y
y z x z x y
=
= +
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
y z y z x z x z x y x y = +
Let ,

1 1 1
a x y z = + +
2 2 2
b x y z = + +
i j k
i j k
i
i j k
j k
Let , and are non-zero vectors and is a
scalar.
a b c o

1.
2.
3.
4.
5. If , then and are parallel.
6.
7.
a b b a =
( )
a b c a b a c + = +
0 a a =
( ) ( ) ( )
a b a b a b o o o = =
0 a b =
a
b
( ) ( )
a b c a b c =
( ) ( ) ( )
a b c a c b a b c =
The area of parallelogram formed by the two vector and a
b a h =
( )
where sin h b u =
Area sin a b a b u = =
h
O A
B
C
u
b
a
1
Area of triangle
2
a b =
If the triangle is
O
A
B
(i.e of the parallelogram)
1
2
a
b
THE END.
GOOD LUCK!!