• Fracture: The separation or the fragmentation of

a solid body into two or more parts under the

action of stresses.
• Fracture process:
(1) Damage accumulation
• Associated with the properties of materials
(2) Nucleation of one or more cracks or voids
• A crack is formed , when the local strength or ductility is
exceeded
(3) Growth of cracks or voids
• The propagation of cracks can be analyzed by Linear Elastic
Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
• The stresses at the tip (or the vicinity of the tip) of a crack?
• At what value of the external load will a crack start to grow?
 Modes of crack loading

Opening
mode (mode
I)

Sliding Tearing mode

mode (mode III)
(mode II)
 Stress concentration

Inglis’s analysis

Elliptical cavity: σmax = σ (1 + 2a/b)

Crack: σmax = σ [1 + 2(a/ρ)1/2] (ρ = b2/a)

~ 2 σ (a/ρ)1/2 (ρ << a)
• A notch also produces biaxial or triaxial stress state.
• Stress concentration factor Kt = σmax/σ
• For a circular hole in a plate of infinite width, Kt = 3,
which decreases with decreasing width.
Stress concentration at an elliptical hole
– The major stress gradients are confined to a region of
dimensions roughly equal to ρ surrounding the
maximum stress position.
– Kt increases with an increase in a and a decrease in
ρ.
(ρ = b2/a)
 Griffith criterion

• Based on thermodynamic energy balance,

a crack will propagate if the elastic energy
released is greater than the surface
energy created by the two new crack
surfaces.
• An infinite plate of thickness t contains a
crack of length 2a under plane stress.
– Total strain energy released in the relaxed
volume due to the crack

σ2  πσ
( )
2 2
at
  2πa t =
2

 2E  E
• The surface energy created by the two new crack
surfaces: (2at)(2γs)
(γs : energy per unit area)
• When a crack is introduced into the plate, the change in
potential energy per unit thickness of the plate is
∆U = 4aγs – (πσ2a2)/E
δ∆U 2πσ 2 a
• The crack is stable, when = 4γ s − =0
δa E

• Critical stress for crack to propagate

– Plane-stress σ c = 2 Eγ s π a

– Plane-strain
σ c = 2 Eγ s πa (1 − υ 2 )

σc (plane-strain) > σc (plane-stress)

 Plane-stress vs. plane-strain
• Normal and shear stresses at free surfaces are zero.
• For a thin plate, σ33 = σ23 = σ13 = 0. (plane-stress)
• In a very thick plate, the flow of material in the x3
direction is restricted.
→ ε33 = 0 and ε13 = ε23 = 0 (plane-strain)
• According to Griffith’s analysis, the necessary
condition for crack propagation is - (δUe/δa)≧(δU
γ/δa).
Ue: elastic energy of the system (including machine and
specimen)
• Griffith’s analysis needs far-field applied stress σ
c and crack length a.
σc√a = material constant
• For a crack to propagate, the maximum stress at
crack tip should be sufficient to break the atomic
bonds.
• In Inglis’s analysis, (σmax)c and ρ are local
parameters and difficult to measure.
– ½(σmax)c√ρ = σc√a = material constant
• Fracture toughness (KIc): Yσc√a
 Crack propagation with plasticity
• If the material can deform plastically, a sharp crack tip
will be blunted, and a certain amount of plastic work is
done during crack propagation.
• Plastic deformation at crack tip causes an increase in
ρ.
→ larger σc to propagate the crack.
→ improve fracture toughness
• Griffith’s criterion becomes
σc =
2E
(γ s + γ p )
– Plane-stress πa

σc =
2E
(γ s + γ p )
– Plane-strain
(
πa 1 − υ 2
)

• Increasing plastic work (γp) → increase in σc → improve

fracture toughness
 Strain energy release rate G
• It is difficult to measure γs and γp.
• Irwin:
Fracture occurs at a stress corresponding to a critical
value of the crack extension force (G)
G = ½ (δU/δa) = rate of change of energy with crack length
• Plane-stress,
U = πa2σ2/E (energy released per unit thickness)
→ G = πaσ2/E
• At fracture, G = Gc (critical energy release rate)
→ σc = (EGc/πa)1/2 (plane-stress)
→ σc = [EGc/πa(1 – υ2)]1/2 (plane-strain)
• Gc = 2(γs + γp)
• It is possible to determine Gc experimentally.
 Fracture mechanics
• Fracture mechanics gives a quantitative analysis of the
process of fracture of a material.
– Given a certain applied stress, what is the largest size defect
(crack) that can be tolerated without failure of the structure?
→ different design concept
• Fracture mechanics: interrelation among
– The far-field stress σ
– The crack length a
– The inherent material resistance to cracking KR (or R)
 Hypotheses of LEFM

• Cracks are inherently present in the material, because

there is a limit to the crack-detecting equipment.
• A crack is a free, internal, plane surface in a linear
elastic stress field.
– The stresses near the crack tip
(
σ ( r ,θ ) = K )
2πr f (θ )
• K: stress intensity factor (SIF)
• The growth of a crack is predicted in terms of the tensile
stress at the crack tip, which is characterized by K.
• K = Y σ(πa)1/2
– Y is a constant depending on the crack opening mode and
specimen geometry.
 Crack tip separation modes
• Mode I (opening mode)
• Mode II (sliding mode)
• Mode III (tearing mode)
 Stresses in mode I

K = σ πa (infinite plate)

σ 11  1 − sin θ sin 3θ 
2 2
  KI θ θ 3θ
σ 22 = 2π r cos 2 1 + sin 2 sin 2 
σ   θ 3θ 
 12   sin 2 cos 2 

σ 13
= σ 23 = 0

σ 33
=0 (plane-stress)

σ 33
= υ (σ 11 + σ 22 ) (plane-strain)

K represents the magnitude of the stress around the crack

tip.
The terms of r and f(θ) describe the tress distribution
around the crack tip.
Stress intensity factor

K = Y σ(πa)1/2

The stress intensity

factor K measures
the stress field
around the crack tip.

K includes the
influence of the
applied stress, the
dimension and the
geometry of the
crack.
 Plastic-zone size correction
• The elastic stress field away of a crack with plastic zone is equivalent of a
crack in an elastic material of a crack length 2(a + ry).
• Local yielding at crack tip
→ plastic zone (radius ry)
→ perturbation of the elastic stress field
effective crack length: (2a)eff = 2(a + ry)
• K is calculated by using effective crack length.

K
a σ 22 = σ y = for θ=0, r=ry
2πry
2
aeff 1  K 

ry ≈ plane
2π  σ y 
 stress
2
1 K 
ry ≈   plane strain
6π σ 
 y
Plastic zone at the crack tip of a through-thickness
crack in a plate
 Variation in fracture toughness with thickness

• When K reaches Kc, the

corresponding stresses
and strains at the crack tip
reach a critical value for
fracture to occur.
• Kc depends on specimen
thickness.
• For thickness B >>2ry, Kc
becomes independent of
B. → KIc (plane strain
fracture toughness)
• Slant fracture (high
energy)
• Flat fracture (low energy)
B B
=π
2ry ( Kc σ y )2
• Crack extension force G:
the change in potential energy in the process of crack
extension; the crack extension force per unit length of
crack extension

δU
G = lim
δ A→ 0 δ A

A: crack area
δA = B δa
 1
U1 = Pe
2
1
U 2 = ( P − δP )( e + δe )
2
GBδa = δU = U 2 − U1
1
δU = U 2 − U1 = ( P − δP )( e + δe ) − 1 Pe
2 2
1 1 1
δU = Pδe − eδP − δPδe
2 2 2
( e = cP, δe = cδP + Pδc )
1 1 1 1 1
δU = PcδP + P 2δc − eδP − c( δP ) 2 − PδPδc
2 2 2 2 2
1
δU = P 2δc
2
1 2
P δc
δU 2
G = lim = lim
δA→0 δA δA→0 δA

1 P 2 δc
G=
2 B δa c: compliance of the sample

Gc can be determined experimentally by measuring ao, Pc, and δc/δa.

 Crack opening displacement
• Plastic zone at the crack tip → crack opening displacement (COD)
• When COD reaches a critical value δc, fracture would occur.
∀ σc = KIc/(πa)1/2,
– As a →0, σc→∞ W
σ net = σ ≥σy
• General yielding occurs for W −a

• For the KIc validity, σc ≦ 0.66σy

4σ
COD = ∆ = (a
2 2
−x )
• E
4σa
∆=
• At the center of crack (x=0), the maximum opening is E
4σ
• With plastic zone correction, COD = ∆ = (a + r )
y
2
− x2
E

• COD allows one to treat fracture under plastic conditions. We cannot

define a single critical COD value as KIC.
 Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD), δ

4σ ry = σ a
2
δ= 2ary 2σ y2
E

4 K I2
δ=
π Eσy

Direct measurement of δ is not

easy. δ can be determined from
measuring ∆ at x = 0.
1/ 2
4σ  2 E 2
∆=  a − x 2
+ δ 
E  16σ 2 
Alternative way to obtain δ:
GI K I2 (1 − υ 2 ) λ~2.1 for LEFM;
δ= = plane strain
λσ y Eλσ y
λ ~1 for cases with
δ = K I2 Eλσ y plane stress extensive plasticity
• Relationship among different fracture toughness parameters

G = K 2 E ' = λσ yδ
• E’ = E (for plane stress); E’ = E/(1- υ2) (for plane strain)
• KIc (plane strain; ε33 = 0)
• Kc (plane stress; σ33 = 0)
 Statistical analysis of failure strength

Weibull distribution
A body of volume V can be considered to be made up of n
elements, each of volume Vo.
The probability the solid will survive under an applied stress σ
is P(V).
P(V) = P(Vo)n
Weibull defined a risk-of-rupture parameter R = -[ln P(Vo)].
He also postulated R = [(σ – σu)/σo]m
m : Weibull modulus
σu: no failure below σu; σo ~ mean strength
   σ −σ 
m

The survival probability of a brittle material P (Vo ) = exp −   
u

  σ o  

  σ m 
Taking σu = 0 for brittle materials P(Vo ) = exp −   
  σ o  
 Volume dependence of strength

Let V = n Vo → P(V) = P(Vo)n = [P(Vo)]V/Vo

ln P(V) = (V/Vo) ln P(Vo)

 V σ 
m

P(V ) = exp −   
 Vo σo  

For a given survival probability P(V),

ln P(V) = -(V1/Vo)[σ1/σo]m = -(V2/Vo)[σ2/σo]m
V1σ1m = V2σ2m

1/ m
σ 1  V2 
=  
σ 2  V1 

The larger the volume, the smaller the strength.