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Section Three: Determinants

Textbook: Ch. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5


GOALS OF THIS CHAPTER
- introduce further the matrix determinant - calculate determinants using the weave method

- calculate determinants using cofactor expansions


- calculate determinants using elementary row operations - see properties of the matrix determinant - application to geometry: areas of parallelograms and triangles - application to linear systems: solving systems using Cramers Rule

WHAT IS A MATRIX DETERMINANT?


Sometimes it is nice to know if a matrix is invertible BEFORE we do all the work to actually find the inverse.

It turns out that there is a special number associated to a square matrix that tells us if that matrix is invertible!

We call this special number the determinant of the matrix A, or write it as det(A).

WHAT IS A MATRIX DETERMINANT?


Recall the 2x2 matrix determinant:

a
A=

b
d

det(A) = ad - bc

How do we actually get this number?

WHAT IS A MATRIX DETERMINANT?


On our list of Non-singular Equivalences, we noted that a matrix was invertible if its RREF was an identity matrix. Lets try to reduce this matrix to RREF and see what happens: Ex. 1 Where the 2x2 Determinant Comes From

a
A=

b d

R1

R1 / a

(here we are assuming that a is not zero)

WHAT IS A MATRIX DETERMINANT?


Ex. 1 Where the 2x2 Determinant Comes From

1
A=

b/a d
R2 R2 c*R1

1
A=

b/a d (bc)/a

WHAT IS A MATRIX DETERMINANT?


Ex. 1 Where the 2x2 Determinant Comes From

1
A=

b/a d (bc)/a

So, in order for A to be an identity matrix, we would need the number d (bc)/a to not be zero:

d (bc)/a 0
ad bc 0

det(A)

WHAT IS A MATRIX DETERMINANT?


Ex. 1 Where the 2x2 Determinant Comes From

We have just shown the most important property of the determinant:

IF det(A) = 0, THEN THE MATRIX A IS NOT INVERTIBLE.

IF det(A) 0, THEN THE MATRIX A IS INVERTIBLE.

THE WEAVE METHOD


The weave method gives us an easy way to remember the determinant of a 2x2 or 3x3 matrix. We cannot use this method for higher order matrices. Ex. 2 The 2x2 Weave Method

a
A=

b
d
+

Down and to the right, we add.


Down and to the left, we subtract.

det(A) = + ad - bc

THE WEAVE METHOD


Ex. 3 The 3x3 Weave Method To make it work, you have to add the first two columns of the matrix on the right side.

a
A=

b
e h
-

c
f i

a
d g
+

b
e h
+ +

d g
-

Down and to the right, we add. Down and to the left, we subtract.

det(A) = + aei + bfg + cdh - ceg - afh - bdi

THE WEAVE METHOD


Ex. 3 The 3x3 Weave Method

1
A=

0
2
-

3
1

1
2 5
+

0
-8 2
+ +
REMARK: Since the determinant is not zero, it would be possible to find the inverse of this matrix.

2 5
-

-8 7

det(A) = 1*(-8)*1 + 0*7*5 + 3*2*2 - 3*(-8)*5 - 1*7*2 - 0*2*1 det(A) = -8 + 0 + 12 + 120 - 14 - 0 det(A) = 110

COFACTOR EXPANSION
How do we deal with determinants of higher order matrices? Wouldnt it be nice if we could write these formulas in a simpler way?

To answer these questions, we will use the cofactors of matrix entries. Recall that the cofactor of a matrix entry a(i,j) is defined to be:

Aij = (-1)i+jMij

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:

Ex. 4 The 2x2 Cofactor Expansion

a11 a12
A=

a21 a22
+
Lets try to rewrite this in terms of cofactors.

det(A) = + a11a22 - a12a21

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:

Ex. 4 The 2x2 Cofactor Expansion

a11 a12
A=

a21 a22

We can replace a22 with the determinant of a minor!

det(A) = a11a22 a12a21 det(A) = a11M11 a12a21

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:

Ex. 4 The 2x2 Cofactor Expansion

a11 a12
A=

a21 a22

We can do the same thing for a21.

det(A) = a11a22 a12a21 det(A) = a11M11 a12M12

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:

Ex. 4 The 2x2 Cofactor Expansion

a11 a12
A=

a21 a22
Finally, we get rid of the negative signs by using the cofactor. This is why the cofactor has a (-1) in the formula!

det(A) = a11a22 a12a21 det(A) = a11M11 a12M12 det(A) = a11A11 + a12A12

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:

Ex. 4 The 2x2 Cofactor Expansion

a11 a12
A=

a21 a22

We call this a cofactor expansion along the first row. Pretend you are drawing an arrow and whatever entry you hit, multiply that entry by its corresponding cofactor.

det(A) = a11A11 + a12A12

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Next, we will show that a cofactor expansion along the first row of a 3x3 matrix gives the 3x3 weave formula.

Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion

a
A=

d
g

e
h

f
i

det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2M11 + b(-1)3M12 + c(-1)4M13

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion

a
A=

b
e

c
f

det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2M11 + b(-1)3M12 + c(-1)4M13

det(A) = aM11 bM12 + cM13


det(A) = a(ei - fh) bM12 + cM13

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion

a
A=

b
e

c
f

det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2M11 + b(-1)3M12 + c(-1)4M13

det(A) = aM11 bM12 + cM13


det(A) = a(ei - fh) b(di - fg) + cM13

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion

a
A=

b
e

c
f

det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2M11 + b(-1)3M12 + c(-1)4M13

det(A) = aM11 bM12 + cM13


det(A) = a(ei - fh) b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg)

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion

a
A=

b
e

c
f

det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2M11 + b(-1)3M12 + c(-1)4M13

det(A) = aM11 bM12 + cM13


det(A) = a(ei - fh) b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg) det(A) = aei - afh - bdi + bfg + cdh - ceg
This is the formula we saw before!

COFACTOR EXPANSION
So this gives us a way to find determinants of 4x4 or higher matrices! We expand using cofactors (since we cant use the weave formula). Before I give some examples, I will state a theorem that might save you some time. Thm. 6 If A is a square matrix, then det(A) can be expressed as a cofactor expansion along any row or any column of the matrix. In the next few examples, we will see just how awesome this theorem is.

COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 7 Illustration of Thm. 6 - done in class

Ex. 8 4x4 Cofactor Expansion - done in class

Ex. 9 Speedy 4x4 Expansion - done in class

ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS


Recall the three types of elementary matrices:

TYPE I multiplying a row by a non-zero number


TYPE II adding a multiple of one row to another TYPE III switching two rows

What we will do next is to calculate the determinants of these types of elementary matrices, so we can see how elementary row operations affect determinant calculations.

ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS


TYPE I multiplying a row by a non-zero number

Elementary matrix obtained from operation R3 2R3

1
E1 = 0 0

0
1 0

0
0 2

So the determinant of a Type I elementary matrix is equal to the non-zero number you use!

det(E1) = 2

ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS


TYPE II adding a multiple of one row to another

Elementary matrix obtained from operation R1 R1 3R3

1
E2 = 0 0

0
1 0

-3
0 1

So the determinant of a Type II elementary matrix is equal to one!

det(E2) = 1

ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS


TYPE III switching two rows

Elementary matrix obtained from operation R2 R3

1
E3 = 0 0

0
0 1

0
1 0

So the determinant of a Type III elementary matrix is equal to negative one!

det(E3) = -1

ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS


Fact: For any square matrix A and any elementary matrix E det(EA) = det(E) det(A).
performing an E.R.O. on a determinant

det(EA) det(E)

= det(A)

keeps det(A) in tact

balancing by dividing

This means if we want to use an elementary row operation on A to make our determinant calculation easier, we can balance this action by dividing by the determinant of our elementary matrix.

ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS

Ex. 10 5x5 Elementary Row Operation Method - done in class

Ex. 11 Algebraic Row Operation Method - done in class

PROPERTIES OF THE DETERMINANT


Thm. 12 Properties of the Determinant - proof done in class

(1) A is singular if and only if det(A) = 0


(2) det(AB) = det(A)det(B) (3) det(At) = det(A) (4) If A is upper or lower triangular, then det(A) is the product of the elements on the main diagonal. (5) det(cB) = cndet(B) (c is a scalar number) (6) If A is invertible det(A-1) = 1 / det(A)

PROVING THE EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS


Now we have enough tools to prove the equivalent statements. We also add two more items to the list. (1) The nxn matrix A is invertible. (2) det(A) 0. (3) The system Ax=b has a unique solution for every b. (4) The only solution of the homogeneous system Ax=0 is the trivial solution x=0. (5) A is row equivalent to I (ie. there is not a full row of zeros in the RREF of A). (6) A can be written as a product of elementary matrices Proof done in class

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


Consider a triangle in the first quadrant:

(x2,y2)
(x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

To calculate the area, we will calculate the area of three rectangles and three triangles.

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The area of the first rectangle can be calculated by: l*w = (x2 - x1)y1

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The area of the first triangle can be calculated by:

b*h/2 = (x2 - x1)(y2 - y1)*1/2

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The total area of this shape is: l*w + b*h/2 = (x2 - x1)y1 + (x2 - x1)(y2 - y1)*1/2

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The area of the second rectangle can be calculated by: l*w = (x3 x2)y3

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The area of the second triangle can be calculated by:

b*h/2 = (x3 x2)(y2 - y3)*1/2

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The total area of this shape: l*w + b*h/2 = (x3 x2)y3 + (x3 x2)(y2 - y3)*1/2

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The area of the final rectangle can be calculated by:

l*w = (x3 x1)y3

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The area of the final triangle can be calculated by:

b*h/2 = (x3 x1)(y1 - y3)*1/2

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


(x2,y2) (x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

The area of the final shape is:

l*w + b*h/2 = (x3 - x1)y3 + (x3 x1)(y1 - y3)*1/2

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


So the area of the triangle is:

(x2,y2)
(x1,y1)

(x3,y3)

[(x2 - x1)y1 + (x2 - x1)(y2 - y1)*1/2]


+ [(x3 x2)y3 + (x3 x2)(y2 - y3)*1/2] - [(x3 - x1)y3 + (x3 x1)(y1 - y3)*1/2]

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


If we expand, we get:

1/2*x2y1 1/2*x1y2 + 1/2*x3y2 1/2*x2y3 1/2*x3y1 + 1/2*x1y3

It turns out that this expression above can be written as

x1 y1 1
det

x2 y2 1
x3 y3 1

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


Sometimes the points will be not in the first quadrant or the points will be labeled in a different order. This has an effect of changing the determinant by (-1), so we just take the absolute value:

x1 y1 1
Area of triangle = det

x2 y2 1 x3 y3 1

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS


Since a parallelogram is just two triangles put together, we can use the previous formula for areas of parallelograms too! All we require are three vertices of the parallelogram (the fourth one is just extra information).

x1 y1 1
Area of parallelogram = det

x2 y2 1 x3 y3 1

FINDING AREAS USING DETERMINANTS

Ex. 13 Area of Triangle and Parallelogram Using Determinants - done in class

CRAMERS RULE
We can use determinants to solve equally determined linear systems in a much quicker way that using Gauss-Jordan elimination. The next method we see is called Cramers Rule. Thm. 14 Let A be an nxn square matrix that is non-singular. Let b be an nx1 column matrix. Let Ai be the matrix obtained by replacing the ith column of A with b. If x is the unique solution of Ax=b, then xi = det(Ai) det(A) , as i ranges from 1 to n.

CRAMERS RULE
Proof: Since A is non-singular, we know the inverse of A exists. We can use it to solve the linear system: Ax = b x = A-1b

If we rewrite the inverse of A using the adjoint formula, we obtain:

x = (1/det(A) * adj(A))b

CRAMERS RULE
Write the formula using general matrices: x = (1/det(A) * adj(A))b

x1 x2 xn
1

A11 A21
=
det(A)

An1 An2 Ann

b1 b2 bn

A12 A22 A1n A2n

CRAMERS RULE
Lets calculate one of the entries in x:

x1
x2 xn
1 = det(A)

A11 A21
A12 A22 A1n A2n

An1
An2 Ann

b1
b2 bn

x1 = 1/det(A) (A11b1 + A21b2 + + An1bn) x1 = det(A1) det(A)

This is a cofactor expansion down the first row of A1!

CRAMERS RULE
This works for all the other entries in the xvector, so we have proved that Cramers Rule works.

Ex. 15 Cramers Rule for a 3x3 Linear System - done in class

GABRIEL CRAMER (1704-1752)


- Swiss mathematician born in Geneva - finished his education at eighteen and was co-chair of a mathematics department at twenty! - travelled a lot; he met Euler (that guy who has e named after him), Halley (that guy who has a comet named after him), Johann and Daniel Bernoulli (many things named after the Bernoullis) - after Johann Bernoulli died, Cramer was asked to edit all of Bernoullis works and publish them - Cramers Rule appears in Introduction lanalyse des lignes courbes

algbriques

- falling from his carriage while travelling and the over-work from editing led to his death

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