Wind Energy Presentation

Speakers: Ronan Cleary Nigel Black

Presentation Outline
History and Context Conversion Technologies Environmental and other Issues Regarding Wind Economics and Numerical Example Conclusion

History and Context

Global Energy Use

Energy use is increasing, across the globe, year by year. Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) has had to increase to meet the needs of developed and developing economies. From 1973 2003, TPES increased:
From 6034 MTOE to 10579 MTOE i.e 70,598 TWh to 123744 TWh (1MTOE = 11.7TWh)

Early Wind Energy History

Utilised for the past 3000 years. Mechanical power used for grinding grain and water pumping. Up until the early 20th century wind was used to provide mechanical power. From 13th Century, Horizontal Axis Windmills integral to rural economy.

Water Pumping Windmills

Used for pumping water from underground sources and for irrigation. At peak in America 600,000 units were in use on farms. Present day wind pumps primarily limited to remote locations.

Decline of Wind Power in the 20th Century

Developments in steam engine and internal combustion technologies. These engines reliant on fossil fuels drove the industrial revolution. This led to a slow decline in windmill industry.

Cost of Crude Oil rose throughout the late 1970s and 1980s.. ..Western Countries became suddenly conscious of their dependence on oil.. ..Recently wars and unstable governments in oil producing regions has led to the understanding that alternative forms of energy production have to be developed..

..Attention turns to utilising Renewable Energy Sources.. ..Energy independence..

..development of Wind Turbines accelerated. .

Revival of Wind Power

The peak oil crisis in the 1973 highlighted need for alternative energy sources. This led to a renewed interest in wind power. From 1979 the modern wind industry began with serial production of wind turbines.

The Coming Energy Crisis?

Energy crisis is a situation in which the nation suffers from a disruption of energy supplies (in our case, oil) accompanied by rapidly increasing energy prices that threaten economic and national security. James L. Williams, A. F. Alhajji, The Coming Energy Crisis?

Fossil Fuels and Climate Change

The burning of fossil releases carbon dioxide into atmosphere. The Greenhouse Effect theory states the greenhouse gases greatly affect the earths temperature. Climate change will influence energy policy in the future.

Drivers of Wind Power

Energy security. Maintain standards of living. Climate change. Government incentives.

Wind Energy Potential

European wind energy potential is 45,000TWh. Ireland has one of best wind resources in the world.

Wind Generating Capacity for Ireland

Irelands Energy Generation Mix

 In 2009 renewable energy contributed 14.2% to the Irish energy demands Wind energy contributed ~77% of the total renewable electricity supply. This represents 11% of the total electricity demands. Irish government targets for RES-E by 2020 is 40%.

 At present only Wind and Hydro energy technologies sufficiently scalable. Suitable sites in Ireland for Hydro is limited. If RES-E target is to be met Wind Energy will represent a majority share of renewable energy contribution.

Conversion Technology

What is Wind?
Wind is the movement of air masses around the Earth. This movement of air masses around the Earth is influenced by two primary factors.
1. Solar heating of the Earth. 2. The Earths rotation (Coriolis effect).

Solar Heating
The curvature of the Earth causes large temperature differences on surface. This leads to areas of high and low pressure. This difference of pressure causes air to accelerate from higher to lower pressure. This simple principle drives the Earths air masses.

The Modern Wind Turbine

Scale: Vestas NM82 turbine to the Eiffel Tower.

Approx. Size of Modern 3-Bladed Wind Turbine

By Installed Capacity By approx. Annual Energy Output
Heigh t

Energy output
(Figure, for number of homes supplied based on average UK household consumption of 4100 kWh/year (OFGEM) and NI Planning Service.)

Wind Turbine Orientation

Wind Turbines have two classes based on rotor shaft orientation. Those with rotors that rotate about a Vertical axis (VAWT) and Horizontal axis machines whose rotating shafts are aligned horizontally (HAWT)
Vertical Axis

Horizontal Axis

Rotor Diameter

Vertical Axis Turbines (VAWT)

Advantages
Omni-Directional, Turbine doesnt need to face the wind. Use wind from all directions Generator and Gearbox can be near ground Faster, easier maintenance Lighter weight towers , cuts construction costs (depending on design) VAWTs in theory allow for less materials to capture the same amount of wind.

Rotor Height

Disadvantages
Some VAWTs produce a pulsating torque There are problems with Drag when blade rotates into wind. Design means difficult to erect on tower Installed on base, on building or ground Wind speed slower at lower altitudes Turbulent air flow at ground, increased noise and wear and tear. VAWTs run at lower efficiency than HAWTs Upgrading/changing turbine parts may require dismantling upper structure costly and laborious

VAWT Designs

DARRIEUS Wind Turbine

SAVONIUS Wind Turbine

The Eggbeater turbine Has curved blades, Lift Device. Generally good efficiency Large Torque Ripple and Cyclic Stress on tower Can be reduced by using 3 blades or more Higher Solidity Higher Cost Requires external power to start turning

GIROMILL Wind Turbine

Has Straight Blades Cyclo Turbine Variety Can utilise Variable Pitch to reduce pulsating Torque. Self starting turbine

Drag Device Has Scoops instead of Blades Scoops/Cups catch and are pushed by the wind. Self starting with 3(+) scoops. Make for High Reliability, but Low Efficiency Turbine (15%) Used in Anemometers and Flettner Vents.

VAWTs
Awaiting a breakthrough

(Above) Wind powers Aero generator

(Above) Quiet Revolutions Vertical Axis Turbine. (Right) Windation Power Module Wind Catcher

.. prototypes are still being developed, at lower costs and higher efficiencies ..Despite not achieving the commercial success of the HAWTs, the technology is far

VAWT

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

All grid-connected commercial Wind Turbines today are built with a propeller type rotor on a horizontal axis, i.e. a horizontal main shaft..
Principle: Linear motion to rotational motion to electrical energy (via generator) Types: Upwind Faces the wind, avoiding wind shade behind the tower as an advantage. Drawback is on costs, rotor needs to be inflexible, placed at distance from the tower, and active yaw control. Downwind Facing downwind, on shaded side of tower Advantage can be built lighter with flexible rotor and no Yaw mechanism Disadvantage is greater fatigue loads and fluctuation in wind power due to shading

How does it work?

Inside a Wind Turbine

..Inside the Nacelle of a Wind Turbine..

Pitch System

..A Wind Turbine completed..

Rotor Hub
Connects the Blades to the Nacelle
Cantilevered hubs (primary) Struts and Stays Fixed or rigid attachment.

Transfers motion to the Nacelle/Main Shaft Houses the Pitch System

Pitch is either Fixed or Variable

This System allows for turning/repositioning of the Blades:

Into wind direction for Max efficiency To stop the Blades and Turbine operation
In excessive winds to avoid fatigue or failure For maintenance

Rotor Controls
Crucial element to any Wind Turbine system..This is how the Turbine controls the forces acting on the rotor..
Brakes
Medium Large Turbines Mechanical Brakes, Aerodynamic Brakes

Stalling

HAWT increases angle of attack in high wind as blades speed up Approach taken was to allow the blades to stall (like an aircraft) Takes stress off Rotor, reduces chance of failure Technique used until noticed that stalling blades generate a lot of vibration( noise) Active Stall Control, blades auto turned to Stall when wind speeds are too high
seen in large turbines

Coning (When Downwind)

Rotor Blades come to a sharper cone Flap hinges at the roots of the blades,
vary capture area of the rotor mitigate loading

Rotor Controls
Furling (When Upwind)
Process of forcing the blades of a wind turbine out of the direction of the wind to stop blades turning Works by decreasing the angle of attack, thus reducing induced Drag from Lift on the Rotor Fully furled turbine blade, when stopped has blade facing into the wind. Completed by the Pitch Angle Control System, Hydraulic systems, spring loaded as back-up (blades automatically furl) Electric systems, servomotor with back-up battery

Failure
is avoidable

Conventional Drive Train

Transfers power from Rotor to Generator Gearbox/Mechanical Transmission
Spur or Planetary gears or combination Used on large scale Turbines High Failure due to high stresses

Alternative Drive Train Systems

Direct Drive (no transmission)
Generator operates on low rotation Motivation:
Simplification of Nacelle Increase reliability, efficiency, avoid gearbox failure

1. Siemens, 3.6 MW Direct Drive Turbines

`Synchronous generator and permanent magnets

2. Enercon, Direct Drive Generator

Synchronous Generator and electrical rotor with windings

3. Mtorres 1.5MW Turbine

Direct Drive, multi-pole synchronous Generator

Have yet obtain sizeable market share compared to conventional geared design

Alternative Drive Train Systems

Hybrid Systems
Middle Route between Conventional Geared and Direct Drive Solutions
Some gearing and one or more multi-pole generators

Motivation:
Simpler more reliable Gearbox/Transmission Coupled with Generator of comparable size Goal of compact, dimensionally balanced Drive Train

WinWind 3 MW, Hybrid/Multibrid

Clipper Wind, 2.45 MW Liberty Wind Turbine with Multi-PMG System

Monopole Towers Tubular, cylindrical or conical Large Scale Turbines Less drag , high corrosion resistance Lightweight, least expensive for scale Requires Deeper Foundatiion Lattice Towers 5m sections Medium Scale Turbines Small Footprint on environment Must Climb for maintenance

Tower

Tilt Up/Down Wind Turbine raised/tilted up during operation No climbing, maintenance on ground Large footprint, more guy wires, reqs level terrain. Guyed Lattice or Monopole Tower Min 3 guys Tilt Up Tower Min 4 guys Lowest cost tower, requires less space than tilt-up Must climb for maintenance

Turbine Blades
Modern commercial designs have 3 blades
Vibration intensity decreases Noise and wear decreases Efficiency increases

Materials: Fibre glass reinforced polyester, graphite fibre in epoxy, wood-epoxy. Special receptors mounted on blades for lightning protection

Aerodynamics of Turbine Blades explained..

Wind/Air moves faster over longer, upper side of airfoil Low pressure area forms above the airfoil Pressure difference causes force from below airfoil to act upwards.. This is LIFT.. LIFT, in aircraft allows for flight.. In a Wind Turbine, blades constrained to one plane of rotation about the hub. So LIFT causes rotation of the blades about the hub. Where there is lift there is an opposing force, DRAG.. Acts perpendicular to LIFT, overcome by designing for a high LIFT-TO-DRAG ratio..

Blade Design
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) The ratio of the rotational speed of the tip of the turbine blade to the actual free stream velocity of the wind Has the symbol l TSR determines how fast the turbine will want to turn High Efficiency modern 3 blade turbines have TSR of 6-7 Higher TSR is better, but too high and turbine gets noisy due to high stress

Optimum angle of attack gives highest Lift to Drag Ratio, thus there must be an Optimum TSR given by..

Blade Design
Twist and Taper
Speed through the air of a point on a blade changes with distance from the hub To optimise TSR and Angle of Attack for all points along the blade it must twist from root to tip

Yaw
Active Yaw (control system)
Anemometer, Controller, Drive train. Measures wind speed and, relays info and re-adjusts rotor to wind direction

Passive Yaw
Yawing by aerodynamic means Wind vanes or fan-tail wheels, attached to nacelle.

Free Yawing Downwind HAWTs, rotors free to yaw according to wind direction

Blade Design
The Optimum Turbine Blade
Smooth streamlined airfoils (reduce DRAG) Large chord and large twist near hub, sharp trailing edge. Low Solidity, approx 10% Low Tip Speed Ratio, l, approx. 5-7 Lower l means a higher pitch angle Higher l means lower pitch angle Pitch angle should be equal for all blades.

Wind Farm Infrastructure

Power in the wind

P = x Air Density x Swept Rotor Area x (Wind Speed)3

v3

Wind Turbine Operation

An Ideal Wind Turbine Operating continuously at maximum rated capacity 365 days a year The Reality of the technology Wind Turbine has continuously variable power output. Operates across its entire range (zero max rated) over 365 days, depending on wind speed.

The Wind Resource

Question How much is there theoretically available? Can you quantify it? Answer: Wind
Wind is a renewable indirect solar energy resource. Theoretically, supplies are infinite. Power in the Wind is got from the equation: P = r A v3 Wind is a continuously variable resource.
Variable include
Geog. Distrib. of Wind Speeds Topography Local wind flow Wind speed persistence

Location? Where is it?

Wind Turbine Sizes

Time Period: Early-Mid 80s Late 80s Early 90s 100 500kW Mid Late 90s 750 1000kW At Present 2500 3500kW Typical Wind Turbine Size: <100kW

Citing a Wind Turbine

Windmills existed for hundreds of years Practical Modern Wind Turbines Advantages: Knowledge of Air flow, Aerodynamic Design Common Factor: Amount Energy Produced heavily dependant on where they are cited...

Environmental and other Issues Regarding Wind

Visual Impact
Visual impact on the landscape often cited as main reason for objections to wind power developments . However studies however shown that ~80% of people surveyed support wind energy. There will always be opposition regarding projects that have a visual impact.

Wind Turbine Noise

Wind turbines are described as noisy by opponents. However in reality wind turbines compare favourably to other noise pollution sources.

Wind Turbines and Birds

The main potential hazard to birds from wind turbines is that of collision with rotating blades. Estimates put bird fatalities at 1-2 per turbine per year at worst.

Altamont Pass
Worst recorded case of bird strikes. Reasons for high avian mortality rate.
High density. Small older models which rotate faster. Large numbers of protected and at risk raptor species.

Planning Issues
Considerable progress has occurred. Greater community involment is required. Objections process can cause considerable delays.

(Irish Examiner)

Grid Stability
Wind energy is highly intermittent and nondispatchable. High levels of wind penetration may affect the stability of the grid. Ironically overproduction at off peak hours may be issue. In 2003 a moratorium on the connection of wind energy projects to the grid was put in place by the CER due to concerns over the stability of the grid.

Energy Storage
Pumped Hydroelectricity.
Pump water uphill at night or when wind energy production exceeds demand. Flow water downhill through hydroelectric turbines during the day or when wind energy production is less than demand. Around 70-80% round trip efficiency. Raises cost of wind energy by 25%. Suitable locations limited. Large capital investment.

Turlough Hill

 Hydrogen storage
Use wind power to electrolyze water into hydrogen. Store hydrogen for use later in fuel cells. 25% round trip efficiency. Raises cost of wind energy by 4.

Compressed Air Energy Storage

Using wind power to compress air in underground storage caverns. However this is costly and ineffective.

Economics and Numerical Example

Capital Costs
Capital costs of wind energy are dominated by cost of wind turbines. Average investment cost in Europe is around 1.23 million/MW. The lifetime of a wind turbine is typically 20 years.

www.wind-energy-the-facts.org

Operation and Maintenance Costs

O&M costs constitute a sizable share of annual costs. O&M costs can comprise 20-25% of total cost per kWh. Vary over lifetime of wind project with costs increasing over the lifetime of project. O&M costs estimated to be 1.2 - 1.5 eurocents (c) per kWh of wind power produced averaged over lifetime of project.

Cost of Wind Energy

Capital costs represent 75-80% of the total cost of wind energy. The total cost per KWh produced is calculated by discounting and levelising investment and O&M costs over the lifetime of the turbine, and then dividing them by the annual electricity production. Costs vary depending on where wind farm is situated areas with higher average wind speeds will produce cheaper electricity.

Full load hours are calculated as the turbines average annual

Government Support
In 2005 the Irish Government introduced a fixed feed in price system (REFIT). Prices for wind energy are fixed under this program as follows.
Large scale onshore wind category (>5MW) 5.7 eurocents per KWh. Small scale onshore wind category (<5MW) 5.9 eurocents per KWh.

In 2009 the Irish Government introduced fixed prices of 14 eurocents per KWh for offshore wind energy.

Numerical Example
Example wind farm project to supply electricity to the central grid. Project based on average costs and conditions for a wind project in Europe. Project outline:
Three Vestas V52 turbines rated at 850KW each. Total rated capacity is 2550KW. Capital Investment costs of 1.3 million/MW. O&M costs are assumed to be 1.35 c/kWh as an average over the lifetime of the turbine. Lifetime of turbine set at 20 years in accordance with most wind turbine design. Interest rate of 7.5%. Inflation of 1% over lifetime of project . Assumed Capacity factor of 30%. 5.9 c/kWh as outlined under (REFIT).

RETScreen Model

Cumulative Cash Flows

Equity payback in 11.4 years. Project will generate ~3.5 million over the lifetime of the project.

Conclusions
Wind power is a proven technology and can make a significant contribution to Irelands renewable energy targets. Advances wind turbine technology enable operations at lower wind speeds and greater heights dramatically expanding the harvestable wind resource. Wind energy is an unreliable source of energy and on its own will not replace fossil fuels.