Artificial Intelligence 18.

Revision Lecture
Course V231 Department of Computing Imperial College Simon Colton

Overview

Exams: style and example questions

Covered in next Thursdays lecture (12pm)

Today we review the course material

Could you get a job in the AI industry? Knowledge, understanding, abilities

What can I get you to write about? What can I get you to explain? What can I get you to do?

Try not to infer anything explicit about the exam!

Disclaimer: I may miss something today which appears on the exam. I will certainly cover more stuff than is on the exam.

Four General Areas Covered

General notions of AI

Characterisations, autonomous agents, search, Representations, game playing to demonstrate these notions Predicate logic, automating deduction, Resolution theorem proving, constraint solving Overview (FIND-S), decision trees, Artificial Neural Networks, Inductive Logic Programming Genetic algorithms, genetic programming

Automated reasoning

Machine learning

Evolutionary approaches

Characterisations of AI

All about understanding

Know that there are different ways to split up AI

Long term goals weak & strong AI Inspirations, e.g., brain, society, logic, evolution, Methodologies: scruffies (me) and neat (good AI people) Techniques, representations, applications, products

An important characterisation:

Into general problems to be solved,

E.g., learning, proving, competing, communicating, creating, Exhibiting life, etc.

Artificial Intelligence Agents

Knowledge:

Definitions of rational, autonomous, agents What we have to worry about internally (agent)

Environmental knowledge, utility functions, goals, etc. Software engineering considerations

What we have to worry about externally (environment)

Accessibility, determinism, episodes, etc.

Understanding

Why we use agents as a concept in AI Why we worry about rationality and autonomy

Search in Problem Solving

Knowledge

How to specify a problem as a search problem

Initial state, operators, goal test What are you looking for (path or artefact)? Completeness/soundness, time/space tradeoffs, background Depth first, breadth first, iterative deepening, bidirectional

What the general problems are in search applications

Types of uninformed search

Difference between path cost and heuristic functions Types of heuristic search

Uniform path cost, greedy, A*, IDA* Admissible heuristics, comparing heuristics with effective branching

Hill climbing searches

Local max/min problems, random restart, simulated annealing

Search in Problem Solving

Understanding

Agenda analogy and graph analogy Why we have to search for an answer to problems (+coursework) Why we need different types of search

Uninformed searches, heuristic searches

Why completeness & soundness are important notions Why heuristics are needed, what they are in general Specify a problem as a search problem Simulate a specific kind of search

Abilities

E.g., which nodes are expanded next (draw graph, etc.)

Calculate effective branching rates, compare heuristics

Calculate search space sizes, calculate heuristic measures

Knowledge Representation

Knowledge

General types of representation available

Logical, graphical, production rules, frames Propositional, predicate, higher order, fuzzy, etc.

Logical representations available

Understanding

Why different representations are required Limitations of each representation Expressiveness in logical representations Represent information

Abilities

Logically, as semantic networks, in a frame based way, etc.

Game Playing

Knowledge

What a zero-sum two player game is What the minimax principle is in general, what cutoff search is Evaluations functions, weighted linear functions Alpha-beta pruning Expectimax, chance nodes Why using minimax strategies is rational Write down entire search trees for simple games Propagate scores from the bottom to top of the trees Work out the next move for a player, including expectimax

Understanding

Abilities

Representing Knowledge in Predicate Logic

Knowledge

Syntax and semantics of first order predicate logic

Sentences, connectives, constants, predicates, variables, functions, quantifiers, etc.

What quantifiers mean, their scope, etc. Instantiation, ground variables, etc. Horn clauses, logic programs, body, head How search is undertaken in Prolog, LIPS, WAM OR-parallelism, AND-parallelism

Representing Knowledge in Predicate Logic

Understanding

Differences between propositional and predicate logic

Benefits to predicate logic (expressivity)

What the terms syntax and semantics mean Prolog is a declarative, not procedural language How logic-based expert systems work in general Translate English to first order predicate logic Translate first order predicate logic to English

Abilities

(Without making mistakes either way!)

Simulate a Prolog-style search Identify parts of logic sentences and logic databases

e.g., quantifiers, constants, head, body, literal, Horn clauses

Making Deductive Inferences

Knowledge

That and, or are commutative, distributive Some commonly used propositional equivalence rules

Double negation, rules [E1], [E4], [E5], de Morgans law Unit resolution, and elimination, or introduction, Existential elimination, etc. Not simple/common ones Forward/backward chaining, proof by contradiction

Some commonly used implication rules

I tend to supply inference rules in exams

Different ways of chaining together inference steps

Making Deductive Inferences

Understanding

What it means for two sentences to be logically equivalent What it means for a sentence to be false What it means for one sentence to entail another How rewrite rules can be used for proving equivalences Use truth tables to

Abilities

Show equivalences, tautologies, that a statement is false That one statement implies another Show whats above and below the line

Apply inference rules

Translate sentences:

Be fluent in rewriting sentences

The Resolution Method

Knowledge

What conjunctive normal form is What a substitution is, what unification does Overview of the unification algorithm The resolution rule

Unit resolution, full resolution, generalised resolution

Understanding

That resolution is refutation-complete Why we need conjunctive normal form/unification Why the occurs-check is important in unification

The Resolution Method

Abilities

Translate something into conjunctive normal form

By using equivalence rules Organising quantifiers, standardising variables, etc. Existential elimination

Put a constant in place of an existential variable Not using full skolemisation (we skipped over that)

Prepare a set of sentences for use in a resolution proof

Needs all sentences as single clauses (just split them) Apply them to unify two sentences

Find a unifying set of substitutions

Resolution Theorem Proving

Knowledge

Specifying a problem as axioms and theorem As a search problem: operators, initial states (CNF), the goal test Dealing with equality (demodulation) Heuristic strategies:

Unit preference, set of support, input resolution, subsumption Higher order proving, interactive, etc.

Overview of some other topics

Understanding

Why deriving the empty clause means a contradiction Why we negate the theorem statement Why proof by contradiction is valid Know that resolution has been applied to mathematics

Resolution Theorem Proving

Abilities:

Prove a theorem using the resolution method

Remember to negate theorem statement Follow proof all the way Draw the proof tree Or organise the resolution steps in a way

Which makes me think you know what youre doing

Deduce something from a set of axioms

Not necessarily related to proving something

Overview of Machine Learning

Knowledge

What ML problem constituents are:

Examples (pos & neg), background information What kind of errors can occur in the data Representation of solutions (v. important) How to search for solutions, how to choose between solutions

What ML method constituents are:

Occams (Ockhams) razor: choose simplest if all else equal

The FIND-S method

Simple, guaranteed to find the most specific solutions

False negatives, false positives Predictive accuracy on training set, test set, comprehensibility Definition of overfitting

How we assess hypotheses

How we assess learning methods: cross-validation, hold-back

Overview of Machine Learning

Understanding

Learning from examples How induction differs from deduction That positives and negatives are:

Correct and incorrect classifications

What robustness means That hypothesis accuracy doesnt necessarily mean that the method is a good one

That methods can overfit data (memorise)

Abilities

Specify machine learning problems Identify problem constituents/method constituents Simulate search in the FIND-S method

Decision Tree Learning

Knowledge

What entropy and information gain are How the ID3 algorithm works How we can try to avoid overfitting trees What are good problems for decision tree approaches

Attribute-value pairs, discrete values, etc.

Understanding

What the tree representation is

Why it is both a graphical and a logical representation How it can be thought of as a categorisation problem

What entropy is estimating

Decision Tree Learning

Abilities

To read decision trees To construct decision trees from English specifications Specify a learning problem for decision tree learning Calculate entropy and information gain for attributes Simulate the ID3-algorithm in action

Calculate information gain, choose attributes, restrict data (Sv), how/when to end branches

Two Layer ANNs

Knowledge

How information is stored in an ANN (in the weights)

How weighted sums are calculated

How ANNs are used to classify examples What are input/hidden/output units/layers What a perceptron is

Threshold functions: step, sigma, linear

Perceptron training rule

Using a learning rate How to calculate weight changes

Target and observed output values for output units

Epochs over all the examples

What linearly seperable means, what boolean function means

Two Layer ANNs

Understanding

Difference between symbolic and non-symbolic representations Motivation from biology (and the limitations of this) Why perceptrons are limited Why linear separability is required for perceptrons to learn something Why learning rate is usually set to a small value (undo previous) Write down a perceptron to calculate a given function (e.g., boolean) Describe what a ANN would calculate Propagate values from left to right to make classifications Calculate weight changes in the perceptron learning rule Simulate the perceptron learning rule

Abilities

Multi-layer ANNs

Knowledge

Perceptron units in multi-layer ANNs How sigmoid units calculate outputs from weighted sums

Formula for the sigma function

How these values are turned into classifications Overview of how this works (prop-back), epochs, weight changes, initial random assignment of weights, etc. Calculating network error (in overview) Adding momentum Validation set, weight decay

How feed forward networks calculate values

Backpropagation Learning Routine

How to avoid local minima

How to avoid overfitting

Multi-Layer ANNs

Understanding

Why sigma being differentiable is important Which kinds of problems are suitable for ANNs

Long training, short execution, comprehension not a problem, etc.

Why momentum works

Feed values forward to calculate outputs, use to classify examples

Abilities

E.g., numerical functions, pixel data, etc.,

Calculate output values for the sigma function Calculate error terms for the output units (given formula) Calculate error terms for the hidden units (given formula) Calculate weight changes using the error terms Simulate the back-propagation algorithm

Inductive Logic Programming

Knowledge

Problem context and specification

Logic programs (background, E+, E-, hypothesis) Prior satisfiability and necessity Posterior satisfiability and sufficiency To use induction (rules given) to find new sentences Absorption, identification, etc. What V and W operators are Specific to general (using induction) G to S (using deduction) How pruning and sorting increase efficiency How language restriction increase efficiency

How we can invert resolution

How ILP systems search for hypotheses

Inductive Logic Programming

Understanding

Why logic programs are a good representation

Easy to read, logical

Why the problem specification is necessary Why we invert resolution for our operators

Prove that the observations follows from axioms + H

Abilities

Apply rules of inference such as absorption

Rules would be given

Use resolution to demonstrate how the hypothesis proves the observations (other sentences) Determine which are more general/specific sentences using entailment

Constraint Satisfaction Problems

Knowledge

What a formal representation of a CSP is

In terms of variables, domains, constraints (fully written out)

What a binary CSP is What arc consistency is

How to make a problem specification arc-consistent

By removing values from domains of variables

What happens in backtracking search What forward checking is What variable and value ordering heuristics do What the fail first heuristic is Why we write out CSPs formally Why we write out constraints as tuples which are allowed

Understanding

Constraint Satisfaction Problems

More understanding

Why binary CSPs are important Why forward checking works Why fail first is so-called, and why it works Why value-ordering methods may be bad ideas To specify a problem as a formal constraint satisfaction problem (even if this is annoying for you!) Translate constraint formalisms to general constraints (e.g., using less than/greater than in linear arithmetic) Make problem specifications arc-consistent Simulate back-tracking search (with forward checking)

Abilities

Show understanding of fail-first etc. by doing hand calculations

Genetic Algorithms

Knowledge

Of the evolutionary approach in overview

Generate populations, fitness functions, recombination, etc. Describe this schematically How individuals are selected to mate (fitness function, number which are guaranteed entry into intermediate population) How pairs are chosen to mate, and chosen to produce offspring How offspring are produced through recombination

Canonical genetic algorithm

Genetic Algorithms

Understanding

The inspiration from natural evolution (species/genes)

And its limitations

That its difficult to specify solution representations That its difficult to specify fitness functions Why mutation is important (local maxima avoidance) Represent things (e.g., integers) as bit strings Perform crossover and mutation operators

Abilities

One point and two point crossover

Calculate evaluation functions

Use these in fitness functions for the intermediate population

Genetic Programming

Knowledge

Representation of programs as graphs

What result producing branches are Solution space of programs, fitness function (evaluation function)

Specifying a problem for a GP approach

What the terminal set, function set, control parameters and termination conditions are How individuals are chosen for mating

Using fitness for probabilities for intermediate population

Or using tournament selection, or ranking

What the reproduction, crossover and mutation operators do What the crossover fragment is

Genetic Programming

Understanding

That it is automatic programming

That this is hard, other programs do this in a limited way

Why graphical representation of programs is good That architecture altering operations are used

On more sophisticated program spaces

That GP can achieve human-level performance Translate from functions (with things like if-statements)

Abilities

To graphs and back again

Determine function and terminal sets from programs Perform crossover and mutation Simulate (describe) how a GP approach would proceed