Section Four: Vectors

Textbook: Ch. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, (3.5)

- revisit the idea of a vector and give more detail to this notion -basic computation with vectors in 2-space: length, addition, scalar multiplication, dot product, projections, angles between vectors, unit vectors -basic computation with vectors in N-space: length, addition, scalar multiplication, dot product, cross product, projections, angles between vectors, unit vectors

GOALS OF THIS CHAPTER

-see the properties of the dot product and cross product

-Cauchy-Schwarz and Triangle Inequalities -equations of lines and planes (if time permits)

(RE)INTRODUCTION

We have seen vectors but just what is a vector? There are two standard definitions:
The geometric definition of a vector is the set of all directed line segments equivalent to a given directed line segment. The algebraic definition of an n-vector is the n-tuple (x1, x2, , xn). Each xi is called a component or an entry of the vector. We will still represent a vector as a bold-faced lower case letter, or as an underlined lower case letter.

(RE)INTRODUCTION
For starters, we will work in the xy-plane (or in 2space) and then we will extend ideas to N-space.

Every vector in 2-space has two components.

We will represent a vector as a column matrix, or as an ordered n-tuple.

2 1

(2, 1)

2 is the first component of this vector

(RE)INTRODUCTION
Geometrically, we view vectors as directed line segments that have both an initial end and a terminal end.

Terminal End
Initial End

This may not always the case (for future math classes); it really depends on what co-ordinate system you are working in.

(RE)INTRODUCTION

y
In the xy-plane, we can view a vector as a directed line segment starting at the origin and heading towards a certain point.

(2,1)

u
x

2 1

(2, 1)

(RE)INTRODUCTION

y
The angle that the vector makes with the x-axis is the direction of the vector.

(2,1)

u
x

2 1

(2, 1)

(RE)INTRODUCTION

y
The magnitude of this line segment is its length, or how long it is.

magnitude

(2,1)

u
x

2 1

(2, 1)

(RE)INTRODUCTION
So for every vector, we can create a line segment starting at the origin. Also, for every line segment starting at the origin, we can create a vector. But what happens if our line segment does not start at the origin?

v
(2,2)

(4,3)

(RE)INTRODUCTION
Subtract the initial end from the terminal end!

x2 x1 y2 y1

4-2 3-2

2 1

v
(2,2)

(4,3)

(RE)INTRODUCTION
I often refer to this as centering the vector. Now you can work with a vector at the origin!

2 1 2 1

u
x

But wait, u and v were in different spots and are both equal?

(RE)INTRODUCTION
So it doesnt really matter where this vector is in the xy-plane, it is still treated as (2, 1). This means vectors can be equal and not overlap one another!

v v

2 1

CALCULATING MAGNITUDE
To calculate the magnitude of a vector, we need to get at its length. We denote the length with two vertical bars (looks like absolute value but it does not mean absolute value!): |v|. Lets say we have a vector at the origin: Using Pythagoras Theorem, we have found the length of a vector v = (a, b) to be

a2+b2

(a, b)

|v| =

a2+b2

b
x

CALCULATING MAGNITUDE
Ex. 1 Length of a vector not at origin Let the points P(1,2) and Q(-4,6) be the initial point and terminal point of a vector. What is the length of this vector? First, center the vector at the origin! PQ = (-41, 6-2) = (-5, 4) Now you can use Pythagoras Theorem:

|PQ| =
=

(-5)2+(4)2
41
So the length of the vector PQ is square root of thirty-one.

VECTOR ADDITION
To add vectors it is as easy as just adding the corresponding components.

x1 y1

x2 y2

u+v

x1 y1

x2
y2

x1 + x 2
y1 + y 2

VECTOR ADDITION
Geometrically, vectors in 2-space follow the parallelogram law of addition.

y
Remember that we can move the vector anywhere in the xy-plane and not change it. The sum u+v ends up as the diagonal of a parallelogram.

u+v u u

VECTOR ADDITION
Ex. 2 Adding vectors Find the vector u + v if

-3 1

(4, -2)

You are allowed to switch it around to make it work!

u+v=

-3 1

4 -2

-3+4 1+(-2)

1 -1

VECTOR SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Scalar multiplication occurs when we want to stretch the vector by a certain amount. In the xyplane this has the effect of multiplying all components by a common number.

x1 y1

cu

x1 y1

cx1 cy1

VECTOR SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Geometrically, vectors in 2-space will stretch or reflect (or both) when being scalar multiplied.

y
2v

-v

What if we scalar multiply by zero? Well, then we get the zero vector, or 0 = (0, 0). This is the only vector with a magnitude of zero and any direction we choose.

VECTOR SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Ex. 3 Mixing it up

If u = (2, -3) and v = (-1, -1), then find the vector u 3v.
-u 3v = -(2, -3) -3(-1, -1) = (-2, 3) + (3, 3) = (-2+3, 3+3) = (1, 6)

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

The dot product is a way to take two vectors and return a single number. The dot product gives us information about the angle between the two vectors.

x1 y1

x2 y2

uv

X1

y1

x2

x 1x 2 + y 1y 2

y2

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

It turns out that we can couple the dot product with the magnitudes of the vectors to get at the cosine of the angle between the vectors (you have to use the cosine law to get here):

cos()
u

uv |u| |v|

v
x

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

Lets take a closer look at this formula.

cos()

uv |u| |v|

Cosine fluctuates between the y-values 1 and -1. In fact, 1, -1, and 0 are the three special numbers we will look at.

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

What happens if cos() = -1? This happens at = 180. This means the vectors are parallel but facing opposite directions.

= 180

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

What happens if cos() = 1? This happens at = 0 or 360. This means the vectors are parallel and lie on top of one another.

Oh baby, you can cos()=1 me any day!

= 0 or 360

u v

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

What happens if cos() = 0? This happens at = 90. This means the vectors are perpendicular to one another. When two vectors meet at a 90 degree angle, we call them orthogonal. This only happens when uv = 0

cos() =

uv

|u| |v|
uv |u| |v|

u
0 =

= 90

0 = uv

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

Ex. 4 Determining if two vectors are orthogonal Given the vectors u = (2, -3) and v = (-1, -1), determine if they are orthogonal.

u v= 2
-3

-1 -1

-2 +3

So these vectors are not orthogonal. If the dot product was zero, then they would be orthogonal.

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

Ex. 5 Determining angles between vectors Given the vectors u = (2, -3) and v = (-1, -1), determine the cosine of the angle between them.

cos()

uv |u| |v|

1 26

4+9

1+1

You will never be asked to solve for unless you get one of the three special values of cos().

VECTOR PROJECTIONS
For two vectors u and v, we can break down u into a component that is parallel to v and a component that is perpendicular to v.

u
component of u perpendicular to v

component of u parallel to v

VECTOR PROJECTIONS
These components of u are used in higher algebra when trying to find orthonormal bases (we will not learn this but you can look on 395 of text for more). The component of u parallel to v is often called the projection of u on v, or projvu. Think of it like us shadow on v.

u
component of u perpendicular to v

proj v u

VECTOR PROJECTIONS
To calculate projvu, we can use the following:

proj v u =

uv v 2 |v|

u
component of u perpendicular to v

proj v u

VECTOR PROJECTIONS
The component of u perpendicular to v is often written as the following:

u-

u
(uv)

(uv) v 2 |v|

u|v|2

v
This formula comes from the vector addition: proj v u
u = component parallel to v + component perpendicular to v u = projvu + component perpendicular to v u projvu = component perpendicular to v

VECTOR PROJECTIONS
Finally, we have a scalar number that tells us how long u is in the direction of v. It is often called the component of u in the direction of v (dont get it confused with the other two components, which are vectors!).

uv |v|

VECTOR PROJECTIONS

Ex. 6 Creating a Projection - done in class

UNIT VECTORS
Unit vectors are special vectors that have a
magnitude of one. If you calculate the length of a vector and get one, then it is a unit vector. What if the length of a vector is not equal to one? It is possible to create unit vectors in the same direction or the opposite direction with existing vectors.

Unit vectors are given a hat.

u 1 |u|

x1
y1 x1 y1
You can choose the +1 or the -1. Using +1 gives a unit vector in the same direction as u and using -1 gives a unit vector in the opposite direction.

UNIT VECTORS
There are two special unit vectors: one that runs along the x-axis (1, 0) and one that runs along the yaxis (0, 1). It is possible to show that these vectors capture all the information of 2-space. That is, a basis for 2-space are the vectors (1, 0) and (0, 1). You will see more of this in second year algebra courses.

x
i

UNIT VECTORS
One of the things we can do is show that any vector in 2-space is a linear combination of these two unit vectors.

y
So if we use vector addition, we have shown that v = i + 2j

x
i

UNIT VECTORS

Ex. 7 Unit vectors -done in class Ex. 8 Linear combinations -done in class

INTRODUCTION TO N-SPACE
What we want to do is generalize 2-space to higher dimensions. In the next slides, we will work in the xyz-plane (or in higher coordinate axes). Most of the time it is impossible to visualize these complex spaces. Every vector in n-space has n components. Every vector in n-space will still be represented as a column matrix or an ordered n-tuple.

u1 u2

un

(u1, u2, , un)

u2 is the second component of this vector

INTRODUCTION TO N-SPACE
The set of all vectors with n components is called nspace. We wont be plotting vectors in n-space, but they would still look like directed line segments. This means we can still connect points in n-space and refer to the initial end or terminal end of a vector. If P(x1, x2, , xn) and Q(y1, y2, , yn) are two points in nspace, then:

PQ = (y1-x1, y2-x2, , yn-xn) QP = (x1-y1, x2-y2, , xn-yn)

Vector from P to Q

Vector from Q to P

CALCULATING MAGNITUDE
The magnitude |u| of a vector u in n-space is given by the generalized Pythagoras Theorem. Provided your vector is at the origin:

u1 u2

un

|u| =

(u1)2+(u2)2++(un)2

CALCULATING MAGNITUDE
Ex. 9 Length of a vector in n-space What is the length of the vector y = (1, 0, -2)?

|y| = =

(1)2+(0)2 +(-2)2 5

So the length of the vector y is the square root of five.

VECTOR ADDITION
Similar to 2-space, the addition of two vectors in nspace is defined below.

u
v u+v
=

(u1, u2, , un)

(v1, v2, , vn)

(u1, u2, , un) + (v1, v2, , vn)

(u1 + v1, u2 + v2, , un + vn)

VECTOR SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Vectors in n-space still stretch and/or reflect when scalar multiplied. We still multiply all components by a common number:

(u1, u2, , un)

cu

c (u1, u2, , un)

(cu1, cu2, , cun)

PROPERTIES OF ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Thm. 10 Properties of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication -done in class Proof -done in class Ex. 11 Addition and Scalar Multiplication -done in class

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

Just like in 2-space, the dot product returns a single number that gives us some information about the angle between the two vectors. Sometimes the n-space dot product is called the standard inner product.

= =

(u1, u2, , un)

v
uv
=

(v1, v2, , vn)

v1
=

u1 u2

u 1v 1 + u 2v 2 + + u nv n

v2

un

vn

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

In n-space, the cosine of the angle between two vectors is the same as it is in 2-space:

cos()

uv |u| |v|

-two vectors are still perpendicular, or orthogonal, if their dot product is zero -two vectors are still parallel and facing the same direction if cos() = 1 -two vectors are still parallel and facing opposite direction if cos() = -1

DOT PRODUCT AND ANGLES

Thm. 12 Properties of the N-space Dot Product -done in class Proof -done in class Ex. 13 Dot Products and Angles -done in class

UNIT VECTORS
Recall that unit vectors are special vectors that have a magnitude of one. To create a unit vector in n-space, we use the same formula as 2space:

(u1, u2, , un)

1 |u|

(u1, u2, , un)

Using +1 gives a unit vector in the same direction as u and using -1 gives a unit vector in the opposite direction.

UNIT VECTORS

Ex. 14 Unit vectors -done in class Ex. 15 Linear combinations -done in class

CROSS PRODUCT
In 3-space it is often useful to create a vector that is perpendicular to two given vectors. To do this, we use the cross product. If u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) are two vectors in 3-space, then the cross product is defined to be

uxv=

u1 u2 u3

v1 v2 v3
Note that this is a determinant that returns a vector in i, j, k notation!

CROSS PRODUCT
Because of the determinant, the cross product has some very nice properties both algebraic and geometric. Thm. 16 Properties of the Cross Product -done in class Proof -done in class Thm. 17 Some Geometric Properties -done in class

VECTOR PROJECTIONS
In N-space, vector projections are calculated in the same manner as in 2-space.

proj v u =

uv v 2 |v| (uv) v 2 |v| uv |v|

component of u perpendicular to v =

u-

component of u in the direction of v =

VECTOR PROJECTIONS

Ex. 18 Creating a Projection in 3-space - done in class

CAUCHY-SCHWARZ INEQUALITY
This inequality is a way of relating the dot product to a product of magnitudes. We need it to prove the (more important) Triangle Inequality. Thm. 19 (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality) Let u and v be vectors in n-space. Then

|uv| |u| |v|

absolute value of the dot product multiplication of magnitudes

Nicole Scherzinger +

Cauchy-Schwarz

= Nicole CauchySchwarzinger Inequality?

CAUCHY-SCHWARZ INEQUALITY
This inequality is a way of relating the dot product to a product of magnitudes. We need it to prove the (more important) Triangle Inequality. Proof (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality) The proof comes from analyzing the cosine formula:

cos() =

uv
|u| |v|
take absolute values of both sides |cos()| returns values between zero and one

|u| |v| cos() = uv

|u| |v| |cos()| = |uv| |u| |v| |uv|

TRIANGLE INEQUALITY
What is the shortest path from A to B? Should we go straight from A to B? Or take a detour through point C?

A straight line from A to B is always the shortest path (in n-space).

TRIANGLE INEQUALITY
Lets write these paths with vectors:
C v B u We can use the parallelogram law of addition to show the path from A to B is u+v.

u+v
A

TRIANGLE INEQUALITY
Thm. 20 (Triangle Inequality): Let u and v be vectors in n-space. Then

|u + v| |u| + |v|
Proof (Triangle Inequality) -done in class
C v B

u
u+v A

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

Consider a line L in 3-space that is parallel to the vector v = (a, b, c) and such that the point P0(x0, y0, z0) lies on L. We will try to describe L in terms of v and P0.

P0

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

Choose another point P(x, y, z) that lies on L. Create vectors r and r0 by connecting the origin to P and to P0, respectively.

P0 r0 O v

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

By reversing the vector r and using vector addition, we can create a vector on L that is parallel to v. This new vector has an initial point at P0 and a terminal point at P.

P0 r0 O v

-r

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

Fact: two vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of one another. This lets us write the blue vector as a scalar multiple of v! *sneaky*

-r + r0 = tv r = r0 tv = (x0, y0, z0) t(a, b, c)

P0 r0 O v P L

-r

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

This is called the vector equation of a line in 3-space.

r = (x0, y0, z0) t(a, b, c)

If we use r = (x, y, z), we can compare each component to get the parametric equations of a line.

(x, y, z) = (x0, y0, z0) t(a, b, c) x = x0 ta y = y0 tb z = z0 tc

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

Finally, we can solve for t in each parametric equation to get what are called the symmetric equations of a line.

x x0 = t a

y y0 = t b
z z0 = t c

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

Finally, we can solve for t in each parametric equation to get what are called the symmetric equations of a line.

x x0 a

y y0 = b

z z0 c

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

To get at an equation for a plane , we need the definition of a normal vector. Any vector that is perpendicular to all vectors in a given plane is called a normal vector and is denoted by n.

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

If we fix the point P0(x0, y0, z0) on the plane and take any other point P(x, y, z), we can create the vector P0P. Since P0P is a vector in the plane, if we use the dot product on P0P and n = (a, b, c), we should get zero.

n
P

P0

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

Doing some simplification to get to standard form:

P0P n = (x x0)a + (y y0)b + (z z0)c = 0

ax + by + cz = d = ax0 + by0 + cz0
n
P P0

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

Ex. 21 Some Line and Plane Questions - done in class

PYTHAGORAS OF SAMOS (~570BC - ~495BC)

- travelled extensively as a young adult and migrated to a Greek colony in southern Italy - created the famous Pythagorean school for study of arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy (this was known as quadrivium and all educated people needed to know these things) - the schools philospohy rested on the whole numbers, and that whole numbers could explain all of man and matter - eventually it was found that root 2 was irrational; this went against the philosophy of the school so it was kept a secret; Hippasus parished at sea for disclosing this information to the outside world - the Pythagorean school became too influential for the government of Italy to handle, so it was burned down; Pythagoras fled and was murdered around age of 75