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Objectives of Chapter 16
Study different categories of composites: particulate, fiber, and laminar Focus on composites used in structural or mechanical applications.
Chapter Outline
16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites Particulate Composites Fiber-Reinforced Composites Characteristics of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 16.5 Manufacturing Fibers and Composites 16.6 Fiber-Reinforced Systems and Applications 16.7 Laminar Composite Materials 16.8 Examples and Applications of Laminar Composites 16.9 Sandwich Structures
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Figure 16.1 Some examples of composite materials: (a) plywood is a laminar composite of layers of wood veneer, (b) fiberglass is a fiber-reinforced composite containing stiff, strong glass fibers in a softer polymer matrix ( 175), and (c) concrete is a particulate composite containing coarse sand or gravel in a cement matrix (reduced 50%).
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Figure 16.2 Comparison of the yield strength of dispersionstrengthened sintered aluminum powder (SAP) composite with that of two conventional two-phase high-strength aluminum alloys. The composite has benefits above about 300C. A fiber-reinforced aluminum composite is shown for comparison.
Figure 16.3 Electron micrograph of TD-nickel. The dispersed ThO2 particles have a diameter of 300 nm or less ( 2000). (From Oxide Dispersion Strengthening, p. 714, Gordon and Breach, 1968. AIME.)
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Cemented carbides - Particulate composites containing hard ceramic particles bonded with a soft metallic matrix. Electrical Contacts - Materials used for electrical contacts in switches and relays must have a good combination of wear resistance and electrical conductivity. Polymers - Many engineering polymers that contain fillers and extenders are particulate composites. 11
Figure 16.4 Microstructure of tungsten carbide20% cobaltcemented carbide (1300). (From Metals Handbook, Vol. 7, 8th Ed., American Society for Metals, 1972.)
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Figure 16.5 The steps in producing a silver-tungsten electrical composite: (a) Tungsten powders are pressed, (b) a low-density compact is produced, (c) sintering joins the tungsten powders, and (d) liquid silver is infiltrated into the pores between the particles.
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Example 16.4 SOLUTION (Continued) Suppose that weight is critical. The composites density is:
If we use only 0.2 volume fraction clay, then (using the same method as above) we find that we need 1.06 lb clay and 1.67 lb polyethylene.
The cost of materials is now:
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Figure 16.7 Microstructure of an aluminum casting alloy reinforced with silicon carbide particles. In this case, the reinforcing particles have segregated to interdendritic regions of the casting ( 125). (Courtesy of David Kennedy, Lester B. Knight Cost Metals Inc.)
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Strength of Composites - The tensile strength of a fiberreinforced composite (TSc) depends on the bonding between the fibers and the matrix.
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Figure 16.8 The stress-strain curve for a fiber-reinforced composite. At low stresses (region l), the modulus of elasticity is given by the rule of mixtures. At higher stresses (region ll), the matrix deforms and the rule of mixtures is no longer obeyed.
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Fc = Fm + Ff
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If the fibers are rigidly bonded to the matrix, both the fibers and the matrix must stretch equal amounts (isostrain conditions):
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Figure 16.9 The influence of volume percent boron-coated SiC (Borsic) fibers on the properties of Borsic-reinforced aluminum parallel to the fibers (for Example 16.7).
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Example 16.7 SOLUTION The properties of the individual components are shown below.
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Figure 16.10 Increasing the length of chopped E-glass fibers in an epoxy matrix increases the strength of the composite. In this example, the volume fraction of glass fibers is about 0.5.
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Figure 16.11 Effect of fiber orientation on the tensile strength of Eglass fiber-reinforced epoxy composites.
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Figure 16.12 (a) Tapes containing aligned fibers can be joined to produce a multi-layered different orientations to produce a quasi-isotropic composite. In this case, a 0/+45/90 composite is formed.
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Figure 16.14 Comparison of the specific strength and specific modulus of fibers versus metals and polymers.
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Figure 16.15 The structure of KevlarTM. The fibers are joined by secondary bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms on adjoining chains.
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lets consider using a boron fiber-reinforced Al-Li alloy in the T6 condition. The specific modulus of the current 7075-T6 alloy is:
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If we use 0.6 volume fraction boron fibers in the composite, then the density, modulus of elasticity, and specific modulus of the composite are:
If the specific modulus is the only factor influencing the design of the component, the thickness of the part might be reduced by 75%, giving a component weight of 125 pounds rather than 500 pounds. The weight savings would then be 375 pounds, or (500 gal/lb)(375 lb) = 187,500 gal per year. At about $2.00 per gallon, about $375,000 in fuel savings could be realized each year, or $3.75 million over the 10-year aircraft lifetime. 42
Figure 16.16 Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture surface of a silver-copper alloy reinforced with carbon fibers. Poor bonding causes much of the fracture surface to follow the interface between the metal matrix and the carbon tows ( 3000). (From Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 9, 9th Ed., 1985.)
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Figure 16.17 Methods for producing (a) boron and (b) carbon fibers.
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Figure 16.18 Photomicrographs of two fiber-reinforced composites: (a) In Borsic fiber-reinforced aluminum, the fibers are composed of a thick layer of boron deposited on a smalldiameter tungsten filament ( 1000). (From Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 9, 9th Ed., 1985.) (b) In this microstructure of a ceramic-fiberceramic-matrix composite, silicon carbide fibers are used to reinforce a silicon nitride matrix. The SiC fiber is vapor-deposited on a small carbon precursor filament ( 125). (Courtesy of Dr. R.T. Bhatt, NASA Lewis Research Center.)
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Figure 16.19 The effect of heattreatment temperature on the strength and modulus of elasticity of carbon fibers.
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Figure 16.20 A scanning electron micrograph of a carbon tow containing many individual carbon filaments (x200).
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Figure 16.21 Production of fiber tapes by encasing fibers between metal cover sheets by diffusion bonding.
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Figure 16.22 Producing composite shapes in dies by (a) hand lay-up, (b) pressure bag molding, and (c) matched die molding.
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Figure 16.25 A comparison of the specific modulus and specific strength of several composite materials with those of metals and polymers.
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Figure 16.26 The specific strength versus temperature for several composites and metals.
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Figure 16.27 The manufacturer of composite super-conductor wires: (a) Niobium wire is surrounded with copper during forming. (b) Tim is plated onto Nb-Cu composite wired. (c) Tin diffuses to niobium to produce the Nb3Sn-Cu composite.
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Figure 16.28 A comparison of the specific strength of various carbon-carbon composites with that of other hightemperature materials relative to temperature.
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Figure 16.29 Two failure modes in ceramic-ceramic composites: (a) Extensive pull-out of SiC fibers in a glass matrix provides good composite toughness (x20). (From Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 9, 9th Ed., 1985.) (b) Bridging of some fibers across a crack enhances the toughness of a ceramic-matrix composite (unknown magnification). (From Journal of Metals, May 1991.)
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The volume fraction of epoxy remaining is 0.817. An area of 0.817 times the total cross-sectional area of the strut must support a 500-lb load with no more than 12,000 psi if all of the fibers should fail:
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Although the carbon fibers are the most expensive, they permit the lightest weight and the lowest material cost strut. (This calculation does not, however, take into consideration the costs of manufacturing the strut.) Our design, therefore, is to use a 0.255-in.-diameter strut containing 0.183 volume fraction high modulus carbon fiber.
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Figure 16.30 Techniques for producing laminar composites: (a) roll bonding, (b) explosive bonding, and (c) coextrusion, and (d) brazing.
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Figure 16.31 Schematic diagram of an aramid-aluminum laminate, Arall, which has potential for aerospace applications.
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Figure 16.32 (a) A hexagonal cell honeycomb core, (b) can be joined to two face sheets by means of adhesive sheets, (c) producing an exceptionally lightweight yet stiff, strong honeycomb sandwich structure.
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Figure 16.33 In the corrugation method for producing a honeycomb core, the material (such as aluminum) is corrugated between two rolls. The corrugated sheets are joined together with adhesive and then cut to the desired thickness.
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