8.

0 POLYNOMIALS
8.1
Polynomials
8.3 Partial
Fractions
8.2 Remainder Theorem,
Factor Theorem and Zeroes
of Polynomials
What is
polynomial ?
A polynomial in a finite sum of terms
in which all the variables have whole
number exponents and no variable
appears in denominator.

A polynomial P(x) of degree n
is defined as
1
1 1 0
( ) ... ; 0
n n
n n n
P x a x a x a x a a

= + + + + =
n Z
+
e 1 2
, , ,...,
0 n
a a a a
are called the coefficient of the polynomial.

The coefficient of the highest power of
, x
,
n
a
is the leading coefficient.

where and
0
. a
The constant term is
The degree of polynomial is determined by the
highest power of x
Examples of polynomial functions :
Polynomials Degree Name Leading
coefficient
Constant
term
0 constant 0 -3

1 linear 2 5
2
quadratic 3 7
3
cubic 1 1
4 quartic 1 6
( ) 3 P x =
( ) 2 5 P x x = +
2
( ) 3 7 P x x = +
3 2
( ) 3 2 1 P x x x x = + +
4 2
( ) 5 6 P x x x = +
Examples of non-polynomial expressions
and also the non-positive power of x :

1
3
2
3 , 2 1 2 and
3
1
x x x
x
x x

+ + + +
Polynomials with one, two and three terms
are called monomials, binomials and
trinomials, respectively.
Name Example
Monomial
Binomial
Trinomial
4
x
3
2x x
2
5 2 1 x x +
-performed by collecting like terms
Example 1
Given
4 3 2
( ) 3 5 4 and 3 4 3
3
P x x x x Q(x) = 4x x x = + + +

Determine: (a) P(x) + Q(x) (b) P(x) Q(x)
Solution
4 3 3 2
( ) ( ) ( )
(3 - 5 - 4) (4 - 3 4 3)
a P x Q x
x x x x x x


+
= + + + +
4 3 3 2
3 - 5 4 - 3 4 - 4 3 x x x x x x = + + + +
4 3 2
3 - - 3 5 -1 x x x x = +
4 3 3 2
( ) ( ) ( )
(3 5 4) (4 3 4 3)
b P x Q x
x x x x x x

= + + +
4 3 3 2
3 5 4 4 3 4 3 x x x x x x = + +
4 3 3 2
3 5 4 3 4 4 3 x x x x x x = + +
4 3 2
3 9 3 3 7 x x x x = +
- every term in one polynomial is
multiplied by each term in the other polynomial
Example 2
Given
3
( ) 3 2 4 and 3
2
P x x x Q(x) = x = +
Determine: (a) 3P(x) (b) P(x)Q(x)
Solution
3 3
( ) 3 ( ) 3(3 - 2 4) 9 - 6 12 a P x x x x x = + = +
3 2
3 2 2 2
5 3 3 2
5 3 2
( ) ( ) ( )
(3 2 4)( 3)
3 ( 3) 2 ( 3) 4( 3)
3 9 2 6 4 12
3 11 4 6 12
b P x Q x
x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x



= +
= +
= + +
= + +
In the division integer :
3
32

9 9
5
= +
quotient
remainder
divisor
The statement can be expressed as:
32 ( ) 3 quotient ( ) 9 divisor 5 remainder = + = +




P( x )
OR
P( x )
R( x )
R( x
Q
D( x ) D( x
D( x )
( x )
Q
)
( x ) )
= +
= +

In the same way, the division of polynomial
can be expressed as :
Example 3
Determine
3 2
6 5 12 4
2 1
x x x
x

+
by long division.
Solution
3 2
6 5 12 4 x x x
2 1 x +
2
3x
4x
4
3 2
6 3 x x +
2
8x
12x
2
8 4 x x
8x
4
8 4 x
0
3 2
2
6 5 12 4
3 4 4
2 1
x x x
x x
x

=
+
Therefore
Thus,
3 2
6 5 12 4 x x x
is exactly divisible by 2 1 x +
3.2 Remainder Theorem,
Factor Theorem and
Zeroes of Polynomials
When a polynomial P(x) is divided by a
linear factor x - a ,
then the remainder is P(a)
Proof
Let P(x) be a polynomial of degree n
where n 2. Then
P (x) = Q (x) ( x a ) + R (x)
From polynomial division ,

When x = a ,
Since

Then the remainder is P (x) = R (x)
Note :
1. If P (x) is divided by x + a = x ( -a ) , then

R (x) = P ( -a )


2. If P (x) is divided by


then,


- -
b
ax b a x
a
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
b
R x P
a
| |
=
|
\ .
Example 4
When is divided by

the remainder is 2.

Determine k.
2
5 8 x x k +
1 x
Let P(x) = 5x
2
+ x 8k
P(1) = 5(1)
2
+ 1 8k = 2
8k = 4

k =
2
1
Solution
Example 5
When is divided
by , the remainder is 15,
and when divided by , there
is no remainder.

Determine a and b.
3 2
3 1 x ax bx +
2 x
1 x
Solution
3 2
Let ( ) 3 1
(2) 15 and (1) 0
P x x ax bx
P P
= +
= =
3 2
(2) 3(2) (2) (2) 1 15 P a b = + =
4 2 10 a b =
( )
2 5................... 1 a b + =
3 2
(1) 3(1) (1) (1) 1 0 P a b = + =
4 = a b
4.....................(2) + = a b
Solve equations (1) and (2)
simultaneously, we obtain :
1 and = 3 a b =
Example 6
Determine the remainder when


is divided by
4 3 2
3 6 x x x x + +
2
2 3. x x +
Solution
4 3 2
Let ( ) 3 6 = + + P x x x x x
2
and ( ) = 2 3 ( 1)( 3) + = + D x x x x x
Since the divisor is quadratic,
2
2 3 x x +
the remainder is linear. ( ) R x ax b = +
4 3 2
(1) 1 3(1) 1 1 6 (1) P a b = + + = +
2................(1) + = a b
4 3 2
( 3) ( 3) 3( 3) ( 3) 3 6 ( 3) = + = + P a b
3 18...............(2) + = a b
Solve equations (1) and (2), we obtain :
4 and = 6 a b =
The remainder, ( ) 4 6 R x x =
If the remainder obtained from
dividing the polynomial P(x) by (x a) is
zero, then (x a) is called a factor of the
Polynomial.

If P(a) = 0, then (x a) is a factor of P(x)
Determine whether the following linear
functions are factors of the given
polynomials


3 2
( ) ( ) 3 3; ( a P x x x x x+4)
Let
x+4)
3 2
3 2
3 2
( ) 3 3; (
( ) 3 3
( 4) ( 4) 3( 4) ( 4) 3
= 105 0
P x x x x
P x x x x
P
= +
= +
= +
=
x + 4 = 0
x = - 4


Determine the constant p for which (x 2) is a factor
of x3 + px2 3x + 6.


3 2
Let ( ) 3 6
Since ( - 2 ) is a factor of ( ), then (2) = 0
P x x px x
x P x P
= + +
P(2) = (2)
3
+ p(2)
2
3(2) + 6 = 0
4 p = 8

p = 2


Definition

If P(a) = 0, then x = a is a root of a polynomial
equation P(x) = 0 .

x = a is also called a zero of polynomial
P(x).
In general if x = a is a root of a
polynomial equation P(x) = 0
then (x - a) is a factor of P(x)
Every polynomial equation of
degree n has exactly n roots. Some
of these roots may be repeated




Show that x = 3 is a root of a polynomial
equation x
3
2x
2
5x + 6 = 0


SOLUTION

Let P(x) = x
3
2x
2
5x + 6

P(3) = (3)
3
2(3)
2
5(3) + 6

= 27 18 15 + 6 = 0
Since P(3) = 0 , so x = 3 is a root of P(x).



EXAMPLE

When attempting to factorise a polynomial of
degree 4, it is necessary to find two linear
factors using the factor theorem.
Note:

If z = a + bi is a zero of P(x), its conjugate


z
= a - bi is also a zero.

Thus, complex zeroes of a polynomial
equations with real coefficients occur in
conjugate pairs.

EXAMPLE
One zero of the polynomial
P(x) = x
3
x
2
7x + 15 is 2 + i. Find the other
roots.

SOLUTION

2 + i and its conjugate 2 i are zeroes of P(x)



A quadratic expression can be formed from these
complex roots :
Sum of roots = ( 2 + i ) + ( 2 i ) = 4
Product of roots =
( 2 + i )( 2 i ) = 5
Hence P( x ) = ( x
2
-4x + 5 )( x + 3)
Thus,
P(x) = x
3
x
2
7x + 15 = (x
2
4x + 5)(Ax + B)

Therefore , the zeroes are : 2 + i , 2 - i , -3
By inspection : A = 1 and B = 3
(a) A proper fraction is, if the
degree of the numerator is less
than the degree of the
denominator.

Example :

2 2
3 3
3 x 2x 7
, or
5x x 4 x 1

+ +
4
2
5 2x 7
,
3 x 1

+
Example:
3
3
2x 1
or
x 5
+
+
( ) ( )
2
10
2 1
+

x
x x x 2 1
= + +

A B C
x x x
( ) ( )
7 4
3 5

+
x
x x
Type 1: Denominator with linear factors.

Example :
3 5
= +
+
A B
x x
(a) Denominator with quadratic factors
that can be factorized
Example
Express in partial fractions
2
3
9 x
2
3
9 x
3
( 3)( 3)
=
+ x x
3
( 3)( 3) + x x
3 3
= +
+
A B
x x
( )
( )
3 ( 3)
( 3) 3
+ +
=
+
A x B x
x x
3 3 ( 3) = + + A x B x
3 3 ( 3) = + + A x B x
1
2
= A
1
2
= B
2
3
9 x
( ) ( )
3 3
= +
+
A B
x x
2
3 1 1
2( 3) 2( 3) 9
=
+ x x x
When x = 3,
When x = -3
Example :
( )
( )
2
4
1 3 + +
x
x x
Express as a partial fractions
Solution:
2
4
( 1)(3 ) + +
x
x x
2
( 1) (3 )
+
= +
+ +
A Bx C
x x
2
2
3 ( )( 1)
( 1) 3
+ + + +
=
+ +
A x Bx C x
x x
2
4 3 ( )( 1) = + + + + x A x Bx C x
2
4 3 ( )( 1) = + + + + x A x Bx C x
2
4 ( ) ( ) (3 ) = + + + + + x A B x B C x A C
1 = A
2
: 0 + = x A B
When x=-1,
Equating the numerators,
1 = B
: 4 + = x B C
3 = C
2 2
4 1 3
1 ( 1)(3 ) 3
+
= +
+ + + +
x x
x x x x
Example:
( ) ( )
2
3 6 1
1 1
x x
x x
+
+
( ) ( )
( )
2
1 1
1
A B C
x x
x
= + +
+
+
Repeated factors
2
( 1)
x
x+
Express in partial fraction
( )
2
1 + x
x
( )
( )
2
1
1
A B
x
x
= +
+
+ ( )
2
1 + x
x
( )
( )
2
1
1
A x B
x
+ +
=
+
B x A x + + = 1
When x = 0,
) 1 ( ) 1 ( 0 + = A
1 = A
When x = -1,
1 = B
Hence,
2
1 + x
x
( )
( )
2
1 1
1
1
x
x
=
+
+
Solution:
Example:

2
2 2 2 2 2
3 6 1
( 1)( 1) 1 1 ( 1)
x x A Bx C Dx E
x x x x x
+ + +
= + +
+ + +
Repeated factors
Express in partial fractions
( )
2
2
2
1
1
x
x
+

Example :
Solution:
( )

+
2
2
2
1
1
x
x
( )
+ +
= +
+ +
2 2 2
1 1
Ax B Cx D
x x
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
+ + + +
=
+
+
2 2
2 2 2
2
1 1
1
1
x Ax B x Cx D
x
x
Equating the numerators,
1 x2 = (Ax + B)(1 + x2) + (Cx + D)
When x = 0, B + D = 1 .(1)
When x = 1, 2A + 2B C + D = 0 .(2)
When x = 1, 2A + 2B + C + D = 0 .(3)
When x = 2, 10A + 5B +2C + D = 3 ....(4)

Solving equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) gives
A = 0, B = 1, C = 0, D = 2

( )
( ) ( )

= +
+ +
+
2
2 2 2 2
2
1 1 2
1 1
1
x
x x
x
Hence