April 2007

Further study of
GRAMMAR
Rise to
SPEAKING
By : A.N. Afandi
Speech at : The Distance Learning Program
Electrical Engineering Department
 Analysing Text : Hierarchical
Structure

chapters articles
paragrap
hs
sentences

clauses

groups /
phrases
words
Classification of Words

table, chair, love, Stalin, Eiffel

Tower
have, be, do, jump, swim, seem
in, of, with, between, on top of
the, a, an, my, your, this, those
and, but, so, as, because
big, blue, smart, tall, brick-built
fast, quickly, successfully
Verbs
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a
verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for
example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with
any other type of word.

Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly

true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something.
For example, words like run, fight, do and work all convey
action.

But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the
idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like
be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.

A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks

English", John is the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple
terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us
what a subject does or is; they describe:
 helping main
verb verb

John likes coffee.

You lied to me.

They are happy.

The
are playing.
children

We must go now.

I do not want any.

Verb Classification
1. Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
I can.
People must.
The Earth will.

2. Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
I teach.
People eat.
The Earth rotates.
Main Verbs
1. Transitive and intransitive verbs
transitive: intransitive:
I saw an elephant. He has arrived.
We are watching TV. John goes to school.
He speaks English. She speaks fast.

2. Linking verbs
Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher)
Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful)
That sounds interesting. (that = interesting)
The sky became dark. (the sky > dark)
The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)
3. Dynamic and stative verbs
dynamic verbs (examples):
hit, explode, fight, run, go
stative verbs (examples):
Be, like, love, prefer, wish, impress, please, surprise, hear,
see, sound, belong to, consist of, contain, include, need,
appear, resemble, seem

4. Regular and irregular verbs

regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
look, looked, looked-work, worked, worked
irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
buy, bought, bought-cut, cut, cut-do, did, done
Helping Verbs
1. Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)

be
to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)
have
to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)
do
to make negatives (I do not like you.)
to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
to stand for a main verb (He speaks faster than she does.)
2. Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)
can, could
may, might
will, would,
shall, should
must
ought to

Here are examples using modal verbs:

I can't speak Chinese.
John may arrive late.
Would you like a cup of coffee?
You should see a doctor.
I really must go now.
Adverbs
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. An adverb
"qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). But
adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or
even other adverbs (It works very well).

Many different kinds of word are called adverbs. We can

usually recognise an adverb by its:
1. Function (Job)
2. Form
3. Position
1. Function
The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information
about) verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

Modify a verb:
- John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
- Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
- She never smokes. (When does she smoke?)
Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly.

But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:

Modify a whole sentence:
- Obviously, I can't know everything.
Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It's immediately inside the door.
2. Form

Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly

to the adjective. Here are some examples:
quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. "Friendly", for
example, is an adjective.

Some adverbs have no particular form, for example:

well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
3. Position

Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:

Front (before the subject):

- Now we will study adverbs.

Middle (between the subject and the main verb):

- We often study adverbs.

End (after the verb or object):

- We study adverbs carefully.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two
parts of a sentence.

Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

although, because, since,

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects:

1. Form
2. Function
3. Position
1. Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although

Compound (often ending with as or that)

for example: provided that, as long as, in order that

Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that
2. Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a

sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be
single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate

dependent clause to a main clause, for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.
3. Position

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or

clauses that they join.

Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of

the subordinate clause.
Prepositions

A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming

in front of, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation
to another word or element, as in:

She left before breakfast.

What did you come for?
(For what did you come?)
There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very
small number when you think of the thousands of other words
(nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use
individual prepositions more frequently than other individual
words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten
most frequent words in English.

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid,

among, anti, around, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath,
beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, concerning,
considering, Despite, down, during, except, excepting,
excluding, following, for, from, in, inside, into, like, minus,
near, of, off, on, onto, opposite, outside, over, past, per, plus,
regarding, round, save, since, than, through, to, toward,
towards, under, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon, versus, via,
with, within, without
Preposition Rule
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most
rules, this rule has no exceptions.

Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a
verb. By "noun" we include:
noun (dog, money, love)
proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
pronoun (you, him, us)
noun group (my first job)
gerund (swimming)

A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a

preposition by a verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really
a gerund or verb in noun form.
Prepositions of Place: at, in, on
In general, we use:
at for a POINT
in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
on for a SURFACE
Prepositions of Time: at, in, on
We use:
at for a PRECISE TIME
in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
on for DAYS and DATES
 Supplementary
Review of Future Tenses
THE FUTURE TENSE

The Future
Will and be + going + to are often
used to describe future actions.

S+will+V1+O
S+will+not+V1+O
Will+S+V1+O

Thomas will graduate in June.

Maria is going to go to Bali next week.
THE FUTURE TENSE The Future

The simple present and present progressive are also

used to express future time. These are often used in
connection with schedules.

She is meeting a new client at eleven o’clock.

The train leaves at 6:00 a.m. tomorrow.
THE FUTURE TENSE

The Future Progressive

This tense is used to describe an
event or action that will occur over a
period of time at a specific point in the
future. at 10 a.m. tomorrow
by the time you arrive

S+will+be+V1-ing+O
S+will+be-not+V1-ing+O
Will+S+be+V1-ing+O

I will be teaching TOEFL 40 at 10 a.m. tomorrow.

They will be moving their furniture out of the house by the
time you arrive tomorrow.
THE FUTURE TENSE

Future Perfect Progressive

This tense describes an action that has
been in progress for a duration of time before
another event or time in the future.

finishes law school

S+will+have+been+V1-ing+O
S+will+not+have+been+V1-ing+O
Will+S+have+been+V1-ing+O

By the time he finishes law school, we will have been living in

Village eight years.
SUMMARY
Semester 1

TENSE PAST PRESENT FUTURE PAST FUTURE

Simple S+V2+O S+V1+es/s+O S+will/shall+V1+O S+would/should+V1+O
Progressive S+were/was+V1+in S+do/does+V1+ing+O S+ will/shall S+ would/should
g+O +be+V1+ing+O +be+V1+ing+O
Perfect S+had+V3+O S+has/have+V3+O S+ will/shall S+ would/should
+have+V3+O +have+V3+O
Perfect S+had+been+V1+in S+has/have+been+V1+in S+ will/shall S+ would/should
Progressive g+O g+O +have+been+V1+ing+ +have+been+V1+ing+O
O

TENSE PAST PRESENT FUTURE PAST FUTURE

Simple Event happened Event as habitual, routine, Event in progress will Event will be do if the
began and ended in fact, general truth happen requirement completely
past with exactly in the past
time
Progressive Event in progress at Event in progress at Event will be in Event in progress like
the past time, present or happening progress at the future past or now will be do in
probably continued now, around now, getting time the future
changing, planned future

Perfect Event completely Event finished before and Event will be Event in fancing and
finished before result now, exactly time completely finished requirement uncompletely
another time in the is not important before another time in
past the future
Perfect Event in progress Event in progress when Event in progress Event in progress like
Progressive before another event before now, up now before another time in past or now will be do in
in the past the future the future
 Supplementary
Comprehension of Picture
 Beach

Zoo
 Hospital

Operation