Quantum Computing

Introduction
I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics - Feynman

1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of creating machines based on the laws of quantum mechanics instead of the laws of classical physics.
1985 - David Deutsch developed the quantum turing machine, showing that quantum circuits are universal. 1994 - Peter Shor came up with a quantum algorithm to factor very large numbers in polynomial time. 1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search algorithm with O(N) complexity

Quantum computer

A quantum computer is any device for computation that makes direct use of distinctively quantum mechanical phenomena , such as superposition and entanglement , to perform operations on data. The basic principle : the quantum properties of particles can be used to represent and structure data, and that quantum mechanisms can be devised and built to perform operations with these data

Representation of Data - Qubits

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.
Excited State Light pulse of frequency for time interval t

Ground State

Nucleus Electron

State |0>

State |1>

Representation of Data - Superposition

Light pulse of frequency for time interval t/2

State |0>

State |0> + |1>

Consider a 3 bit qubit register. An equally weighted superposition of all possible states would be denoted by:
|> =
1 8

|000> +

|001> + . . . +

|111>

Operations on Qubits - Reversible Logic

Due to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of information in a gate will cause heat to be evolved which can destroy the superposition of qubits.
Ex. The AND Gate
A C B

Input

Output

A 0 0 1

B 0 1 0

C 0 0 0

In these 3 cases, information is being destroyed

This type of gate cannot be used. We must use Quantum Gates.

Quantum Gates
Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have a degenerate output. i.e. their original input state can be derived from their output state, uniquely. They must be reversible. This means that a deterministic computation can be performed on a quantum computer only if it is reversible. Luckily, it has been shown that any deterministic computation can be made reversible.(Charles Bennet, 1973)

Quantum Gates - Hadamard

Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a Hadamard Gate (also known as a square-root of NOT gate.) Used to put qubits into superposition.

H
State |0> State |0> + |1>

H
State |1>

Note: Two Hadamard gates used in succession can be used as a NOT gate

Quantum Gates - Controlled NOT

A gate which operates on two qubits is called a ControlledNOT (CN) Gate. If the bit on the control line is 1, invert the bit on the target line.
Input A - Target A Output

A 0 0

B 0 1 0

A 0 1 1

B 0 1 0

B - Control

Note: The CN gate has a similar behavior to the XOR gate with some extra information to make it reversible.

Example Operation - Multiplication By 2

We can build a reversible logic circuit to calculate multiplication by 2 using CN gates arranged in the following manner:
Input Output

Carry Bit 0 0

One s Bit 0 1

Carry Bit 0 1

Ones Bit 0 0

Carry Bit

Ones Bit

A Universal Quantum Computer

The CCN gate has been shown to be a universal reversible logic gate as it can be used as a NAND gate.
A - Target A Input Output

A 0
B - Control 1 B

B 0 0

C 0 1

A 0 0

B 0 0

C 0 1

0
0
C - Control 2 C

1
1 0 0 1 1

0
1 0 1 0 1

0
1 1 1 1 0

1
1 0 0 1 1

0
1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

When our target input is 1, our target output is a result of a NAND of B and C.

Bits vs Qubits
The device computes by manipulating those bits with the help of logic gates A qubit can hold a one, a zero, or, crucially, a superposition of these. manipulating those qubits with the help of quantum logic gates A classical computer has a memory made up of bits , where each bit holds either a one or a zero

Bits vs. qubits

the qubits can be in a superposition of all the classically allowed states. the register is described by a wavefunction : the phases of the numbers can constructively and destructively interfere with one another; this is an important feature for quantum algorithms.

Bits vs Qubits

For an n qubit quantum register, recording the state of the register requires 2n complex numbers (the 3-qubit register requires 23 = 8 numbers).

Consequently, the number of classical states encoded in a quantum register grows exponentially with the number of qubits
For n=300, this is roughly 1090, more states than there are atoms in the observable universe.

Dimensions

Small quantum dots, such as colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals, can be as small as 2 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to 10 to 50 atoms in diameter and a total of 100 to 100,000 atoms within the quantum dot volume.

At 10 nanometers in diameter, nearly 3 million quantum dots could be lined up end to end and fit within the width of a human thumb.

How to find?
the energy levels can be probed by optical spectroscopy techniques. blue shift due to the confinement compared to the bulk material . quantum dots of the same material, but with different sizes, can emit light of different colors.

Applications

sharper density of states superior transport and optical properties, and are being researched for use in diode lasers , amplifiers, and biological sensors. use in solid-state quantum computation . By applying small voltages to the leads, one can control the flow of electrons through the quantum dot and thereby make precise measurements of the spin and other properties

A fundamental problem

in quantum physics is the issue of the decoherence of quantum systems and the transition between quantum and classical behavior.

via the Charge

While spins have the intrinsic advantage of long decoherence times, it is very hard to measure a single spin directly via its magnetic moment. yielding a potentially 100% reliable measurement requires a switchable ``spinfilter'' tunnel barrier which allows only, say, spin-up but no spin-down electrons to tunnel.

Given by G.R.Srikanth

Thank u !