Lecture 14

Lecture 14
Data mining and knowledge discovery

Introduction, or or what is data mining? Data warehouse and query tools Decision trees Case study: Profiling people with high blood pressure Summary
Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

1
What is data mining?
Data is what we collect and store, and knowledge is what helps us to make informed decisions. The extraction of knowledge from data is called data mining. Data mining can also be defined as the exploration and analysis of large quantities of data in order to discover meaningful patterns and rules. The ultimate goal of data mining is to discover knowledge.
2
Data warehouse
Modern organisations must respond quickly to any change in the market. This requires rapid access to current data normally stored in operational databases. However, an organisation must also determine which trends are relevant. This task is accomplished with access to historical data that are stored in large databases called data warehouses.
The main characteristic of a data warehouse is its capacity. A data warehouse is really big it includes millions, even billions, of data records. The data stored in a data warehouse is
time dependent linked together by the times of recording and integrated all relevant information from the operational databases is combined and structured in the warehouse.
Query tools
A data warehouse is designed to support decisionmaking in the organisation. The information needed can be obtained with query tools. Query tools are assumption-based a user must ask the right questions.
How is data mining applied in practice?

Many companies use data mining today, but refuse to talk about it. In direct marketing, data mining is used for targeting people who are most likely to buy certain products and services. In trend analysis, it is used to determine trends in the marketplace, for example, to model the stock market. In fraud detection, data mining is used to identify insurance claims, cellular phone calls and credit card purchases that are most likely to be fraudulent.
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Data mining tools

Data mining is based on intelligent technologies already discussed in this book. It often applies such tools as neural networks and neuro-fuzzy systems.
However, the most popular tool used for data mining is a decision tree.
Decision trees
A decision tree can be defined as a map of the reasoning process. It describes a data set by a tree-like structure.
Decision trees are particularly good at solving classification problems.
An example of a decision tree

Household responded: 112 not responded: 888 Total: 1000 Homeownership
Yes responded: not responded: Total:
9 334 343
No responded: not responded: Total:
103 554 657
Household Income
$20,700 responded: not responded: Total:
14 158 172
$20,701 responded: not responded: Total:
89 396 485
Savings Accounts
Yes responded: not responded: Total:
86 188 274
No responded: not responded: Total:
3 208 211
A decision tree consists of nodes, branches and leaves. The top node is called the root node. The tree always starts from the root node and grows down by splitting the data at each level into new nodes. The root node contains the entire data set (all data records), and child nodes hold respective subsets of that set. All nodes are connected by branches. Nodes that are at the end of branches are called terminal nodes, or leaves.
10
How does a decision tree select splits?
A split in a decision tree corresponds to the predictor with the maximum separating power. The best split does the best job in creating nodes where a single class dominates. One of the best known methods of calculating the predictors power to separate data is based on the Gini coefficient of inequality.
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The Gini coefficient

The Gini coefficient is a measure of how well the predictor separates the classes contained in the parent node.
Gini, an Italian economist, introduced a rough measure of the amount of inequality in the income distribution in a country.
12
Computation of the Gini coefficient

100 80
% Income
60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100
% Population
The Gini coefficient is calculated as the area between the curve and the diagonal divided by the area below the diagonal. For a perfectly equal wealth distribution, the Gini coefficient is equal to zero.
13
Selecting an optimal decision tree:

(a) Splits selected by Gini
Class A: 100 Class B: 50 Total: 150 Predictor 1
yes no

yes no

yes no

yes no
Class A: 59 Class B: 1 Total: 60

yes no

yes no
Class A: Class B: Total:
4 1 5
2 1 3
1 8 9
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Selecting an optimal decision tree:

(b) Splits selected by duesswork
yes no

yes no

yes no

yes no

yes no

yes no
15
Gain chart of Class A

100
80
% Class
60
40
20
The Gini splits Manual split selection
20
40
60
80
100
% Population
16
Can we extract rules from a decision tree?

The pass from the root node to the bottom leaf reveals a decision rule. For example, a rule associated with the right bottom leaf in the figure that represents Gini splits can be represented as follows: if and and then (Predictor 1 = no) (Predictor 4 = no) (Predictor 6 = no) class = Class A
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Case study: Profiling people with high blood pressure

A typical task for decision trees is to determine conditions that may lead to certain outcomes. Blood pressure can be categorised as optimal, normal or high. Optimal pressure is below 120/80, normal is between 120/80 and 130/85, and a hypertension is diagnosed when blood pressure is over 140/90.
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A data set for a hypertension study

Community Health Survey: Hypertension Study (California, U.S.A.) Gender Age Male Female 18 34 years 35 50 years 51 64 years 65 or more years Caucasian African American Hispanic Asian or Pacific Islander Married Separated Divorced Widowed Never Married Less than $20,700 $20,701 $45,000 $45,001 $75,000 $75,001 and over
Race
Marital Status
Household Income
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A data set for a hypertension study (continued)

Community Health Survey: Hypertension Study (California, U.S.A.) Alcohol Consumption Abstain from alcohol Occasional (a few drinks per month) Regular (one or two drinks per day) Heavy (three or more drinks per day) Nonsmoker 1 10 cigarettes per day 11 20 cigarettes per day More than one pack per day Abstain from coffee One or two cups per day Three or more cups per day Low-salt diet Moderate-salt diet High-salt diet None One or two times per week Three or more times per week 1 7 cm 983 kg Optimal Normal High
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Smoking
Caffeine Intake
Salt Intake
Physical Activities
Weight Height Blood Pressure
Data cleaning
Decision trees are as good as the data they represent. Unlike neural networks and fuzzy systems, decision trees do not tolerate noisy and polluted data. Therefore, the data must be cleaned before we can start data mining. We might find that such fields as Alcohol Consumption or Smoking have been left blank or contain incorrect information.
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Data enriching
From such variables as weight and height we can easily derive a new variable, obesity. This variable is calculated with a body-mass index (BMI), that is, the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres. Men with BMIs of 27.8 or higher and women with BMIs of 27.3 or higher are classified as obese.
22
A data set for a hypertension study (continued)

Community Health Survey: Hypertension Study (California, U.S.A.) Obesity Obese Not Obese
23
Growing a decision tree

Blood Pressure optimal: 319 (32%) normal: 528 (53%) high: 153 (15%) Total: 1000 Age
18 34 years optimal: 88 (56%) normal: 64 (41%) high: 5 (3%) Total: 157
65 or more years optimal: 2 (3%) normal: 34 (46%) high: 38 (51%) Total: 74
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Growing a decision tree (continued)

51 64 years optimal: 21 (12%) normal: 90 (52%) high: 62 (36%) Total: 173 Obesity
Obese optimal: 3 (3%) normal: 53 (49%) high: 51 (48%) Total: 107
Not Obese optimal: 18 (27%) normal: 37 (56%) high: 11 (17%) Total: 66
25
Growing a decision tree (continued)

Obese optimal: 3 (3%) normal: 53 (49%) high: 51 (48%) Total: 107 Race
Caucasian optimal: 2 (5%) normal: 24 (55%) high: 17 (40%) Total: 43
African American optimal: 0 (0%) normal: 13 (35%) high: 24 (65%) Total: 37
Hispanic optimal: 0 (0%) normal: 11 (58%) high: 8 (42%) Total: 19
Asian optimal: normal: high: Total: 1 (12%) 5 (63%) 2 (25%) 8
26
Solution space of the hypertension study

The solution space is first divided into four rectangles by age, then age group 51-64 is further divided into those who are overweight and those who are not. And finally, the group of obese people is divided by race.
27
Solution space of the hypertension study

157 74 8 19 596 37 66
43
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Hypertension study: forcing a split

Blood Pressure optimal: 319 (32%) normal: 528 (53%) high: 153 (15%) Total: 1000 Age
35 50 years optimal: 208 (35%) normal: 340 (57%) high: 48 (8%) Total: 596 Gender
51 64 years optimal: 21 (12%) normal: 90 (52%) high: 62 (36%) Total: 173 Gender
65 or more years optimal: 2 (3%) normal: 34 (46%) high: 38 (51%) Total: 74
Male optimal: 111 (36%) normal: 168 (55%) high: 28 (9%) Total: 307
Female optimal: 97 (34%) normal: 172 (59%) high: 20 (7%) Total: 289
Male optimal: 11 (13%) normal: 48 (56%) high: 27 (31%) Total: 86
Female optimal: 10 (12%) normal: 42 (48%) high: 35 (40%) Total: 87
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Advantages of decision trees
The main advantage of the decision-tree approach to data mining is it visualises the solution; it is easy to follow any path through the tree. Relationships discovered by a decision tree can be expressed as a set of rules, which can then be used in developing an expert system.
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Drawbacks of decision trees
Continuous data, such as age or income, have to be grouped into ranges, which can unwittingly hide important patterns. Handling of missing and inconsistent data decision trees can produce reliable outcomes only when they deal with clean data. Inability to examine more than one variable at a time. This confines trees to only the problems that can be solved by dividing the solution space into several successive rectangles.
31
In spite of all these limitations, decision trees have become the most successful technology used for data mining. An ability to produce clear sets of rules make decision trees particularly attractive to business professionals.
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Lecture 14

Data mining and knowledge discovery

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

What is data mining?

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

How is data mining applied in practice?

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Data mining tools

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

An example of a decision tree

Yes responded: not responded: Total:

No responded: not responded: Total:

103 554 657

$20,700 responded: not responded: Total:

$20,701 responded: not responded: Total:

Yes responded: not responded: Total:

No responded: not responded: Total:

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

How does a decision tree select splits?

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

The Gini coefficient

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Computation of the Gini coefficient

Selecting an optimal decision tree:

Class A: 63 Class B: 38 Total: 101 Predictor 2

Class A: 37 Class B: 12 Total: 49 Predictor 4

Class A: 4 Class B: 37 Total: 41 Predictor 3

Class A: 59 Class B: 1 Total: 60

Class A: 25 Class B: 4 Total: 29 Predictor 5

Class A: 12 Class B: 8 Total: 20 Predictor 6

Class A: 0 Class B: 36 Total: 36

Class A: Class B: Total:

Class A: Class B: Total:

Class A: 23 Class B: 3 Total: 26

Class A: Class B: Total:

Class A: 11 Class B: 0 Total: 11

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Selecting an optimal decision tree:

Class A: 19 Class B: 14 Total: 33 Predictor 2

Class A: 81 Class B: 36 Total: 117 Predictor 3

Class A: 17 Class B: 6 Total: 23

Class A: 2 Class B: 8 Total: 10

Class A: 46 Class B: 21 Total: 67 Predictor 1

Class A: 35 Class B: 15 Total: 50 Predictor 6

Class A: 37 Class B: 14 Total: 51 Predictor 4

Class A: 9 Class B: 7 Total: 16

Class A: 23 Class B: 9 Total: 32

Class A: 12 Class B: 6 Total: 18

Class A: 8 Class B: 9 Total: 17

Class A: 29 Class B: 5 Total: 34

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Gain chart of Class A

The Gini splits Manual split selection

Can we extract rules from a decision tree?

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

Case study: Profiling people with high blood pressure

Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002

A data set for a hypertension study