Week-11

Approaches to Information Systems (IS)

Building
 THE TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS
LIFECYCLE
• The systems lifecycle describes large- and medium-size
systems projects. It has existed for years and uses tried-
and-true methods that help ensure success of the system
from its humble beginnings as an idea to an old relic that
eventually needs replacing.
• There are seven stages to the lifecycle:

Project definition or System identification

Systems study or System Analysis

System Design

Programming or Coding

System Installation (also include System Testing,
Implementation, Training and Conversion)

System Maintenance
 STAGES OF THE SYSTEMS LIFECYCLE
• The project definition stage or problem identification
or system identification stage helps you determine if a
problem exists.
• if there is an opportunity the company can take advantage
of with a new information system. You can also determine
if you need to modify an existing system in order to keep
up with the competition.
• At this point you decide what the new system can do.
• The systems study stage or Analysis stage takes
longer than you might expect.
• You need to gather as much information as you can about
the current situation, what you expect from the new
system, and how it will all fit together.
 STAGES OF THE SYSTEMS LIFECYCLE

• Oh, and don't forget to check the business plan. The more
information you gather at this stage, the more complete
your information requirements statement will be and the
better idea you'll have of the finished product.
• In design stage, the analyst (or developer) design the
logical and physical design of the software (IS).
• Design stage also involves
– Data design (ERD, DFD)
– Architectural design (Modular framework of computer
program)
– User-interface design (Front-end of IS)
– Procedural design (PSPEC,CSPEC,STD)
 STAGES OF THE SYSTEMS LIFECYCLE
• Just before the programming stage or coding stage
begins you should get everyone together, review all
documentation, rehash (recycle) system requirements,
and verify agreement (preferably in writing) from all sides.
It's hard work to create the programming code - it can be
harder to re-create it later on.
• What you decide up to this point will be pretty much set in
concrete during the programming stage.
• In Programming stage or Coding stage, the developer
selects the programming tool for the software
development according to the type, situation, scope and
size of problem.
 STAGES OF THE SYSTEMS LIFECYCLE

• Programming stage or Coding stage, also ahead with

debugging stage, which involves detecting & correcting
programming errors.
• The installation stage includes System testing,
Implementation, training, and conversion. This is where
the rubber (means tyre) meets the road!
• Read out, in previous week (i.e Week-10)
• The System Maintenance stage (Read out, in previous
week (i.e Week-10))
 TRADITIONAL SYSTEM
LIFECYCLE pros and cons

CAN BE COSTLY, TIME CONSUMING

MAY ENCOURAGE FREEZING
SPECIFICATIONS EARLY IN
DEVELOPMENT

MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR SMALL,
LESS STRUCTURED SYSTEMS
*
 ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM-
BUILDING APPROACHES

PROTOTYPING

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
PACKAGES

END-USER DEVELOPMENT
*
 PROTOTYPING
• A strategy for determining user information
requirements is used when the user cannot
establish information needs accurately before the
information is built.
• A prototype is a small-scale, incomplete, but
working sample of a desired system. i.e.
representative or working model of the users’
requirements in order to discover or verify those
requirements.
• The prototyping approach is an iterative process
involving a close working relationship between
the designer and the users.
 KEY BENEFITS

Prototypes are an active, not passive, model that
end-users can see, touch, feel, and experience.

An approved prototype is a working equivalent to a
paper design specification, with one exception --
errors can be detected much earlier.

Increases creativity because it allows for quicker
user feedback, which can lead to better solutions.

Built something quickly to explore some aspect of
the systems requirements.
 KEY BENEFITS

The prototype is not intended as the final working
system; among other things.

It may be incomplete. less resilient (flexible).

The objective is to investigate user requirements,
in particular:

What data should be presented and what data
should be captured;

To investigate suitable forms of interfaces;

Also to determine whether a particular
implementation platform is appropriate,

Also to determine, the efficiency of a language,
DBMS or communication infrastructure.
 APPLICATION SOFTWARE PACKAGES
• Fast, easy, convenient, user-driven: Many
software packages are extremely convenient for
non-technicals to use to build their own systems.
Commonly called "off-the-shelf" software, these
packages can be the best method of creating an
Information System if that system is fairly
standard across different types of businesses.
• Application software packages still need lots of
planning, especially when it comes to integrating
them with the other Information Systems
throughout the organization. Compatibility is key.
 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
PACKAGES
PREWRITTEN, PRECODED APPLICATION
SOFTWARE, COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
FOR SALE OR LEASE

GEARED TO COMMON REQUIREMENTS
• CUSTOMIZATION: Modification of software
to meet organization’s needs

MUST WEIGH COSTS / BENEFITS
*
 SELECTED EXAMPLES OF
APPLICATION PROGRAMS
ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE; BOND & STOCK
MANAGEMENT; COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
(CAD) ; DOCUMENT IMAGING; E- MAIL;
ENTERPRISE.RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP);
GROUPWARE; HEALTH CARE;
HOTEL.MANAGEMENT; INTERNET TELEPHONE;
INVENTORY CONTROL; JOB COSTING; LIBRARY
SYSTEMS; LIFE INSURANCE; MAILING LABELS;
MATHEMATICAL / STATISTICAL MODELING;
ORDER PROCESSING; PAYROLL; PROCESS
CONTROL;TAX ACCOUNTING;
WEB BROWSER; WORD PROCESSING
*
END-USER DEVELOPMENT
END-USERS DEVELOP INFORMATION
SYSTEM
WITH LITTLE HELP FROM
TECHNICAL SPECIALISTS
USING 4th GENERATION TOOLS
*
END-USER DEVELOPMENT
STRENGTHS:

IMPROVED REQUIREMENTS
DETERMINATION

INCREASED USER INVOLVEMENT &
SATISFACTION

REDUCED APPLICATION BACKLOG
*
END-USER DEVELOPMENT
WEAKNESSES:

RELATIVELY INEFFICIENT

SLOW TRANSACTION PROCESSING

MAY CARRY HIGH COST

LARGE FILES CAN DEGRADE
PERFORMANCE

NONPROCEDURAL APPROACH MAY
HAMPER LOGIC & UPDATING
REQUIREMENTS
*
 MANAGING END-USER
DEVELOPMENT
INFORMATION CENTER:

SPECIAL FACILITY WITHIN
ORGANIZATION

PROVIDES TRAINING, SUPPORT FOR
END-USER-COMPUTING
*
SYSTEM BUILDING APPROACHES


STRUCTURED METHODOLOGIES

OBJECT- ORIENTED SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT

COMPUTER AIDED SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING (CASE)

SOFTWARE REENGINEERING
*
 STRUCTURED
METHODOLOGIES
TOP DOWN, STEP BY STEP, EACH
STEP BUILDS ON PREVIOUS

STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

STRUCTURED DESIGN

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

FLOWCHARTS
*
 STRUCTURED METHODOLOGIES
• A structured methodology is oriented
toward the actual processes used rather
than the data generated.
• Each step must be completed before the
next one is started--just like building a
house.
• These methods all have their shortcomings.
In fact, many of them simply aren't flexible
enough to be used in designing systems in
today's fast-paced world.
 STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

DEFINES SYSTEM INPUTS, PROCESSES,
OUTPUTS

PARTITIONS SYSTEM INTO SUBSYSTEMS
OR MODULES

LOGICAL, GRAPHICAL MODEL OF
INFORMATION FLOW
• DATA FLOW DIAGRAM: Graphical display of
component processes, flow of data
*
 STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

• Use data flow diagrams such as in coming Figure 11.3

so you can track how the information enters, how it's
processed, and how it comes out.
• It's very helpful to use a data flow diagram because
people understand pictures much better than a whole lot
of text. It also forces you to think the whole process
through from beginning to end. You can test the process
on paper to see if it's feasible. It doesn't matter whether
you are using a structured approach to system
development or one of the other types we've discussed in
this week.
SYMBOLS FOR DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS (DFD):

DATA FLOW

PROCESS

SOURCE
OR SINK

FILE
Fig 11.3: Data flow diagram for mail-in registration system.
 STRUCTURED ANALYSIS
• DATA DICTIONARY: Controlled definitions of
descriptions of all data, such as variable
names & types of data
• PROCESS SPECIFICATIONS: Describes
logic of processes at module level
*
 STRUCTURED DESIGN
DESIGN RULES / TECHNIQUES TO
DESIGN SYSTEM, TOP DOWN IN
HIERARCHICAL FASHION


STRUCTURE CHART

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

SEQUENCE CONSTRUCT

*
 STRUCTURED DESIGN

• Using a structured design makes sure your system is

clear and simple. It may not seem so, but you can actually
save time, money, and frustration by following the rules
and techniques of a structured design.
• A structure chart or organizational chart like the one
shown here will give you a visual picture of the system
and help you understand the relationship between each
element.
 HIGH LEVEL STRUCTURE CHART:
PROCESS
PAYROLL

GET VALID CALCULATE WRITE

INPUTS PAY OUTPUTS

CALCULATE CALCULATE
GROSS PAY NET PAY

GET VALIDATE UPDATE WRITE

INPUTS INPUTS MASTER FILE OUTPUTS

(WHITE BOXES ARE MODULES)

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING:


DISCIPLINE TO ORGANIZE, CODE
PROGRAMS

SIMPLIFIES CONTROL PATHS

EASY TO UNDERSTAND, MODIFY

MODULE HAS ONE INPUT, ONE
OUTPUT
*
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING:

• MODULE: Logical unit of program. performs

specific task(s)
• SEQUENCE CONSTRUCT: Sequential steps
or actions in program logic; streamlines flow
• SELECTION CONSTRUCT: IF condition R is
True THEN action C ELSE action D
• ITERATION CONSTRUCT: WHILE Condition
is True DO action E
*
 FLOWCHARTS

Flowcharts represents

Flow of data within the system
PROGRAM FLOWCHART SYMBOLS:

BEGIN OR INPUT OR
END OUTPUT

DIRECTION

SUBROUTINE

PROCESS

MANUAL
OPERATION

DECISION
CONNECTOR
 PROGRAM FLOWCHART:
START
1
2
READ
PRINT
>$10,000 REPORT

PROCESS A

<$10,000

PROCESS B 2 MORE?

1 END
PROCESS A PROGRAM FLOWCHART:
SEQUENCE

PROCESS B

TRUE PROCESS E

TRUE
PROCESS D PROCESS C
S

SELECTION ITERATION
SYSTEM FLOWCHART SYMBOLS:

INPUT/OUTPUT PROCESS MAGNETIC TAPE

PUNCHED CARD MANUAL OPERATION ON-LINE STORAGE

DOCUMENT
DATABASE

ON-LINE INPUT

ON-LINE DISPLAY TELECOMMUNICATIONS LINK

SYSTEM FLOWCHART:
HUMAN
RESOURCES PAYROLL
DATA TIME CARDS MASTER

LOAD &
VALIDATE

PAYROLL SYSTEM
VALID TRANS-
ACTIONS PAYROLL
MASTER

COMPARE & UPDATE

PAYROLL UPDATED
REPORTS & DIRECT GENERAL
PAYROLL
CHECKS DEPOSITS LEDGER
MASTER
OBJECT - ORIENTED SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT

DE-EMPHASIZES OR NOT EMPHASIS ON
USE/DEVELOP OF PROCEDURES

SHIFTS FOCUS FROM MODELS & DATA

TO OBJECTS, WHICH COMBINE DATA &
PROCEDURES

EMPHASIS ON OBJECTS REUSABLE

SYSTEM: Classes; objects; relationships
REDUCES DEVELOPMENT TIME & COST
*
 COMPUTER AIDED SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING (CASE)

AUTOMATION OF SOFTWARE
METHODOLOGIES

PRODUCES
− CHARTS; DIAGRAMS; SCREEN &
REPORT GENERATORS; DATA-
DICTIONARIES; PROGRESS REPORTS;
ANALYSIS; CHECKING TOOLS; CODE;
*

CASE
 (CASE) In Detail
• Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools
automate much of the mundane (everyday), repetitious work
and can sometimes do a better job of it than a human.
• CASE tools keep you organized by automatically updating data
dictionaries and validating design diagrams and specifications.
• The figure shows an example of how CASE tools let you a
visualize business processes while you're developing a process
to automate them.
• These tools won't do everything for you, though. You still have
to ask the hard questions: Is the system feasible? cost
effective? right for our business? integrated with other areas of
the organization? And they require organizational discipline.
CASE tools enforce common methods and standards.
Fig 11.5: Using Scitor's Process Charter for Windows to
map and simulate business processes in real-time.
 COMPUTER AIDED SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING (CASE) BENEFITS
INCREASES PRODUCTIVITY & QUALITY:

ENFORCES DEVELOPMENT DISCIPLINE

IMPROVES COMMUNICATION

DESIGN DEPOSITORY FOR OBJECTS

AUTOMATES TEDIOUS TASKS

AUTOMATES TESTING & CONTROL

CASE
*
RAPID APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT
(RAD)

DEVELOP SYSTEM RAPIDLY:


PROTOTYPING

4th GENERATION TOOLS

CLOSE TEAMWORK AMONG USERS
& SPECIALISTS
*
Connect to the INTERNET
Laudon/Laudon Web site:
http://www.prenhall.com/laudon

Additional Internet Resources related to this chapter:

http://www.sap.comhttp://www.yourdon.com/index.htm
http://www.erpassist.com http://www.togethersoft.com
http://www.cio.com/forums/erp http://www.spr.com
http://www.erpsupersite.com http://www.rational.com
http://osiris.sunderland.ac.uk/sst/casehome.html
http://www.eiffel.com
http://www.brint.com
http://www.reengineering.com
http://www.bpr.com
http://bprc.warwick.ac.uk
http://www.cne.gmu.edu
© 2001 Laudon & Laudon, Essentials of Management Information Systems 4/e