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Sensor networks are another form of infrastructureless network, with many similarities to ad-hock
concepts (reuse resources) WLAN (shared space) Adhoc (shared resources) Sensor (shared resources, large space)
What is a Cell?
Cell is the Basic Union in The System defined as the area where radio coverage is given by one base station. A cell has one or several frequencies, depending
on traffic load.
Fundamental idea: Frequencies are reused, but not in neighboring cells due to interference.
Cell characteristics
Implements space division multiplex: base station
covers a certain transmission area (cell) Mobile stations communicate only via the base station Advantages of cell structures:
Problems: fixed network needed for the base stations handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary interference with other cells Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km
higher capacity, higher number of users less transmission power needed more robust, decentralized base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
K = 22 + 2*1 + 12
K=4+2+1 K=7
3
D=
3K * R
D = 4.58R
The cluster size is specified in terms of the offset of the center of a cluster from the center of the adjacent cluster
G1 G3 G2 F3
A1 A3 A2
C1
G3 B3 B1 B2 D1 D2 F3
G1 G2 F1 F2
B1 B2
C3
D3
E3 E1 E2
F1 F2
C2 E1 E2
D3
D1 D2
E3
Frequency reuse
Cell splitting
Directional antennas subdivide cell into 3 or 6 sectors Might also increase cell capacity by factor of 3 or 6 Decrease transmission power in base and mobile Results in more and smaller cells Reuse frequencies in non-contiguous cell groups Example: cell radius leads 4 fold capacity increase
cell Each cell is defined in a particular layer The lower the layer, the higher the priority
Mobiles will select a cell on the lowest layer as long as it has sufficient signal strength, even if higher layer cell are stronger
WLAN: Definition
A fast-growing market introducing the
flexibility of wireless access into office, home, or production environments. Typically restricted in their diameter to buildings, a campus, single rooms etc. The global goal of WLANs is to replace
office cabling and, additionally, to introduce a higher flexibility for ad hoc communication in, e.g., group meetings.
WLAN: Characteristics
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
very flexible within radio coverage ad-hoc networks without previous planning possible wireless networks allow for the design of small, independent devices more robust against disasters (e.g., earthquakes, fire)
typically very low bandwidth compared to wired networks (~11 54 Mbit/s) due to limitations in radio transmission, higher error rates due to interference, and higher delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction and error detection mechanisms
many proprietary solutions offered by companies, especially for higher bit-rates, standards take their time (e.g., IEEE 802.11) slow standardization procedures
offer lower QoS
products have to follow many national restrictions if working wireless, it takes a very long time to establish global solutions
standardized functionality plus many enhanced features these additional features only work in a homogeneous environment (i.e., when adapters from the same vendors are used for all wireless nodes)
and power management functions) no special permissions or licenses needed (license-free band) robust transmission technology simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings easy to use for everyone, simple management protection of investment in wired networks (support the same data types and services) security no one should be able to read others data, privacy no one should be able to collect user profiles, safety low radiation transparency concerning applications and higher layer protocols, but also location awareness if necessary
Facilitating technologies
RF-Id IrDA
LAN
PAN
Home-RF
WLAN: Technology
Can be categorized according to the
Infrared (IR) LANs: Very limited coverage area (IR cant penetrate walls!)
Spread Spectrum LANs: Operate in industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bands
Narrowband Microwave LANS: Operate at microwave frequencies but not using spread spectrum (in licensing or ISM bands)
Advantages
uses IR diodes, diffuse light, multiple reflections (walls, furniture etc.) simple, cheap, available in many mobile devices no licenses needed simple shielding possible
Radio
Advantages
Disadvantages
experience from wireless WAN and mobile phones can be used coverage of larger areas possible (radio can penetrate walls, furniture etc.)
interference by sunlight, heat sources etc. many things shield or absorb IR light low bandwidth
IrDA (Infrared Data Association) interface available everywhere
Disadvantages
Example
very limited license free frequency bands shielding more difficult, interference with other electrical devices
Example:
Developed initially for military and intelligence requirements Essential idea: Spread the information signal over a wider bandwidth to make jamming and interception more difficult
Frequency hopping
Direct sequence spread spectrum
ad-hoc network
and the access point, but not directly between the wireless nodes. The access point does not just control medium access, but also acts as a bridge to other wireless or wired networks. Several wireless networks may form one logical wireless network:
The access points together with the fixed network in between can connect several wireless networks to form a larger network beyond actual radio coverage.
flow), whereas the wireless clients can remain quite simple. Use different access schemes with or without collision.
Collisions may occur if medium access of the wireless nodes and the access point is not coordinated.
If only the access point controls medium access, no collisions are possible.
Useful for quality of service guarantees (e.g., minimum bandwidth for certain nodes) The access point may poll the single wireless nodes to ensure the data rate.
They cannot be used for disaster relief in cases where no infrastructure is left.
if they are within each others radio range if other nodes can forward the message
WLAN: Standards
Wireles s LAN 2.4 GHz 5 GHz
802.11
(2 Mbps)
802.11b
(11 Mbps)
802.11g
(22-54 Mbps)
HiSWAN a
(54 Mbps)
802.11a
(54 Mbps)
HiperLAN 2
(54 Mbps)
HomeRF 2.0
(10 Mbps)
Bluetooth
(1 Mbps)
HomeRF 1.0
(2 Mbps)
802.11e
(QoS)
802.11f
(IAPP)
802.11h
(TPC-DFS)
(Security)
802.11i
based networks, which additionally support ad-hoc networking Bluetooth is a typical wireless ad-hoc network
IEEE 802.11b offering 11 Mbit/s at 2.4 GHz The same radio spectrum is used by Bluetooth
A short-range technology to set-up wireless personal area networks with gross data rates less than 1 Mbit/s
Shading is much more severe compared to 2.4 GHz Depending on the SNR, propagation conditions and the distance between sender and receiver, data rates may drop fast
Benefits from the better propagation characteristics at 2.4 GHz compared to 5 GHz
Backward compatible to 802.11b
nodes without any access points operating in peer-to-peer configuration, grouped together in a temporary manner.
wireless medium Rapid mobile host movements Limited wireless bandwidth Limited battery power Multi-hop routing
Scalability Power
Minimizing power consumption during the idle time Minimizing power consumption during communication
QoS
End to End delay Bandwidth management Probability of packet loss
source
source
Be notified
Be shortest
DSDV,
ZONE
Specific assumption
QoS-aware
delay to send a packet to each destination The number of nodes that is concerned in multicast The number of forwarding nodes
D
collaborating sensor nodes (ad hoc tiny nodes with sensor capabilities) forming a temporary network without the aid of any central administration or support services.
Sensor nodes can collect, process, analyze and disseminate data in order to provide access to information anytime and anywhere.
Communication protocols
Applications design Extending the lifetime of a sensor network Building an intelligent data collecting
system Topology changes very frequently Sensors are very limited in power Sensors are very prone to failures
identification (ID)
the system to adapt over time to changing connectivity and system stimuli
aggregate data received from their neighbors. Aggregator nodes cache, process and filter data to more meaningful information. Aggregation is useful because:
Increased circle of knowledge Increased accuracy level Data redundancy
scattering of thousands of sensors. Failure of individual sensors has no major impact on the overall network. Minimize human intervention and management. Work in hostile and unattended environments. Dynamically react to changing network conditions.