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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
TEXT BOOKS: Geology of Petroleum, second edition, by A.I. Levorsen Petrolio, M. Pieri Petroleum Geology eTextbook

Summary
Origin and accumulation of Organic Matter (OM) Preservation of OM Transformation of OM to kerogen Diagenesis, catagenesis, metagenesis Migration Trapping

How did petroleum most likely form?

Petroleum is primarily made from plankton. Phytoplankton (plants) and zooplankton (animals) are microscopic organisms that live in water, both freshwater lakes and the oceans. These creatures die and sink to the bottom of the ocean where they accumulate in the sediment along with organic materials that are washed into the lake or ocean by rivers and streams.

THE PRODUCTION AND ACCUMULATION OF ORGANIC MATTER

Organic matter is defined as material comprised solely of organic molecules in monomeric or polymeric form, that are derived directly or indirectly from the organic part of organisms. deposited or preserved in sediments The phytoplankton is the largest producer of organic carbon in water. The contribution of larger marine organisms is negligible. The production of organic matter occurs in the euphotic zone (the first 60-80 m of water depth). This production can reach 600g/mq/yr, for a total amount of about 60 billion tones a year. Only the 0.1 to 0.01% of the organic matter produced becomes fossil fuel.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LIVING MATTER The organic matter that accumulates in sediments belongs to the following groups of chemical constituents:

Lipids
Protein Carbohydrates Lignin (higher plants)

Environments where bioproductivity and depositional environment favour the accumulation of organic rich sediments.

TRASFORMATION OF ORGANIC MATTER Three distinct stages can be recognized based on the degree of alteration of the organic matter:

DIAGENESIS
(from 0 to several hundreds of metres, about 60 C)

CATAGENESIS
(several kilometres, about 150 C)

METAGENESIS
(more than 5-6 km, more than 150-200 C)

DIAGENESIS (from 0 to several hundreds of metres, about 60 C)

In low porosity rocks: anaerobic bacteria must acquire oxygen via a sulfate reduction process, which is a relatively slower process (fermentation) and generate CO2 e CH4 (biogenic gas). Through the disintegration of organic matter, reactive molecules are produced that combine to form geopolymers (kerogen). In high porosity rocks: aerobic bacteria utilize the oxigen occurring in the water to degrade the organic matter (oxidation) and generate H2O, CO2.

DIAGENESIS (from 0 to several hundreds of metres, about 60 C)

Trasformed in biogenic gas through fermentation

CATAGENESIS

(several kilometres, about 150 C)

The onset of petroleum generation and the thermal degradation of kerogen marks the beginning of catagenesis. The kerogen is a macromolecule composed primarily of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) and to a lesser extent, oxygen (O), sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N).
Diagram of van Krevelen
Rare, produces high amounts of oil Mixed terrestrial and marine source material that can generate abundant oil and gas Woody terrestrial source material that typically generates gas

The classification of different types of kerogen is based on the values of the atomic ratios H/C

e O/C. During the catagenesis, the kerogen is heated and becomes relatively
richer in carbon releasing lighter molecules of CO2, H2O

and crude oil or natural

gas, collectively known as

hydrocarbons.

THE OIL WINDOW

Thermal maturation is the natural transformation of kerogen into petroleum in response to increased thermal stress, which is due to an increase in burial depth throughout the geological time. The oil window is a temperature dependant interval in the subsurface where oil is generated and released from the source rocks. The oil window is often found in the 65-125 degree Celsius interval (aprox. 2-4 km depth), while the corresponding gas window is found in the 100200+ degree Celsius interval (3-6 km depth).

CATAGENESIS

(several kilometres, about 150 C)

METAGENESIS Graphite

POROSITY
Pore volume Total volume of the rock X 100

Total porosity

Effective Non-effettive

The percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock that can contain fluids. Porosity can be a relic of deposition (primary porosity, such as space between grains that were not compacted together completely) or can develop through alteration of the rock (secondary porosity, such as when feldspar grains or fossils are preferentially dissolved from sandstones). Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume in a rock that contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. It excludes isolated pores. Total porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow. Thus, effective porosity is typically less than total porosity.

POROSITY TYPE
Primary
Intergranular

ORIGIN
sedimentation
replacement solution tectonic

Intragranular
*Diagenetic

Secondary

**Vuggy ***Moldic

Fractures

*Diagenetic. The geochemical process where magnesium [Mg] ions replace calcium [Ca] ions in calcite, forming the mineral dolomite. The volume of dolomite is less than that of calcite, so the replacement of calcite by dolomite in a rock increases the pore space in the rock by 13% and forms an important reservoir rock. Dolomitization can occur during deep burial diagenesis. **Vuggy porosity is pore space that is significantly larger than grains or crystals ***Moldic porosity. A type of secondary porosity created through the dissolution of a preexisting constituent of a rock, such as a shell, rock fragment or grain. The pore space preserves the shape, or mold, of the dissolved material

PRIMARY POROSITY IN CLASTIC ROCKS

Effect of sorting onto the interparticle porosity: Poorly sorted sedimentsare less porous than well sorted sediments. Sorting is an important characteristic of siliciclastic reservoir rocks because as the degree of sorting decreases, the interstitial area in between the large grains becomes increasingly infilled with finer material.

Make a comment to this slide. How does porosity change?

Choquette & Pray (1970) basic, fabric-selective porosity types

A diagrammatic representation of the basic fabric-selective porosity types used in the Choquette and Pray (1970) carbonate porosity classification. What is meant by fabric selectivity is that the porosity is controlled by the grains, crystals, or other physical structures in the rock and the pores themselves do not cross those primary boundaries.

Choquette & Pray (1970) basic nonfabric-selective or variable porosity types

A diagrammatic representation of the basic non-fabric-selective or variably fabricselective porosity types used in carbonate porosity classification. These are all porosity patterns that actually or potentially can cross-cut primary grains and depositional fabrics. They also include porosity types that potentially can be much larger than any single primary framework element.

Primary porosity (interparticle). The primary porosity in this sandstone partially filled with quartz cement during diagenesis. The remaining primary porosity, filled with blue epoxy during sample preparation, has not been altered by diagenesis. The field of view is approximately 0.65 mm wide

Shelter porosity. A type of primary interparticle porosity created by the sheltering and umbrella effect of relatively large sedimentary particles which prevent the infilling of pore space by finer clastic particles.

Inter- and intra-particle porosity

Intra-particle porosity

Inter-particle porosity

Moldic porosity. Moldic porosity is a type of secondary porosity that preserves the shape of the precursor grain, such as these fragments of fossils. Pores were filled with blue epoxy during sample preparation.

Close-up photograph of vuggy porosity These features indicate pervasive karstification.

Dolomitization. The geochemical process where magnesium [Mg] ions replace calcium [Ca] ions in calcite, forming the mineral dolomite. The volume of dolomite is less than that of calcite, so the replacement of calcite by dolomite in a rock increases the pore space in the rock by 13% and forms an important reservoir rock. Dolomitization can occur during deep burial diagenesis.

The whitish-blue dolomite dolomite crystals are replacing the pinkstained calcite through the process of dolomitization. The field of view is approximately 2 mm wide.

Fracture porosity

A type of secondary porosity produced by the tectonic fracturing of rock. Fractures themselves typically do not have much volume, but by joining preexisting pores, they enhance permeability significantly. In exceedingly rare cases, nonreservoir rocks such as granite can become reservoir rocks if sufficient fracturing occurs

Fracture porosity

PRIMARY, SECONDARY, and TERTIARY MIGRATION

Petroleum System Elements

Source Rock - A rock with abundant hydrocarbon-prone organic matter. Reservoir Rock - The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This is a porous rock. The oil collects in the pores within the rock. The reservoir must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during production. Seal or Cap-Rock - A rock through which oil and gas cannot move effectively. Attributes which favour a rock as a seal include a small pore size, high ductility, large thickness, and wide lateral extent. Migration Route Avenues in the rock through which oil and gas move from source rock to trap (faults, fractures, permeable rocks). Trap - The structural and stratigraphic configuration that focuses oil and gas into an accumulation.

Diagram of a cross section of a petroleum bearing basin, illustrating the five key components: source rock, seal, reservoir, trap, and migration route

MIGRATION

Oil and gas migrate as:

SMALL GLOBULES or DROPS (larger than a micron)

TRASPORTED BY TERMOGENIC GAS (only light oils) IN WATER SOLUTION (particularly gas)

Migrate because of: Hydrodinamic pressure Compaction

PRIMARY MIGRATION
(within the source rock up to the contact with a different, more permeable rock

Transformation of kerogen into products of lower density produces an increase of volume and, therefore, of pressure and generates a network of microfractures

PRIMARY MIGRATION
(within the source rock up to the contact with a different, more permeable rock)

Overpressure zones

SECONDARY MIGRATION
(through an integrated system composed of permeable rocks, fractures, and faults)

oil seep

Oil and gas are less dense than water and, following expulsion from the source rock, they rise towards the Earths surface unless movement is arrested by a seal. Seals tend to be fine-grained or crystalline, low-permeability rocks, such as mudstone/shale, cemented limestones, cherts, anhydrite, and salt (halite). Seals can also develop along fault planes, faulted zones, and fractures. The presence of seals is critical for the development of petroleum pools. In the absence of seals, hydrocarbons will rise to the Earths surface as oil seeps, and be destroyed.

Fault Faults can act as both conduits (migration pathways) and seals, depending on the hydraulic conditions, the rock properties of the faults, and the properties of the rocks juxtaposed across the faults. The consideration of faults as seals follows the same reasoning as for cap-rock seals above, i.e. the sealing capacity of a fault relates to its membrane strength and hydraulic strength. Fault seals fail when the pressure of the petroleum can exceed the entry pressure of the largest pores along the fault plane.

SECONDARY MIGRATION
(through an integrated system composed of permeable rocks, fractures, and faults)

CONTROLLED BY:

buoyancy pressure (spinta di galleggiamento)

capillarity pressure (pressione capillare) hydrodynamic pressure (pressione idrodinamica) Water density is in the order of 1-1.2; that of oil is di 0.7-1; that of gas < 0.001 The buoyancy pressure increases in proportion to the density difference between water and oil and with the diametre of globules so that very small globules may have a compulsion insufficient to lift.

SECONDARY MIGRATION
(throug a system composed of permeable rocks integrated with fractures and faults)

The termination or continuation of movement is determined by an interplay between the driving force (buoyancy pressure) and the resistive force (capillarity pressure).

When the upper and lower radii (r) within the distorted globule globule are equal to one another, the capillarity force is overcome and the globule can rise due to buoyancy

SECONDARY MIGRATION
(through an integrated system composed of permeable rocks, fractures, and faults)

The balance between buoyancy and capillary pressure of a sealing rock is given by:

2(1/rt 1/rp) = ho g (w-o)

(Capillarity pressure) (Buoyancy pressure)

= interfacial tension between oil and water (dine/cm)

rt = globule radius outside the pore (cm)

rp = globule radius inside the pore (cm) ho = height of the column of oil (cm) g = acceleration of gravity (cm/s2) w = water density (g/cm3)

= oil density (g/cm3)

SECONDARY MIGRATION
(through an integrated system composed of permeable rocks, fractures, and faults)

A pressure vs. depth plot, illustrating a typical water gradient (aquifer) supporting a petroleum column, whose steeper gradients lead to a pressure difference (Pb, buoyancy pressure) at its maximum beneath the seal

Fluid content The pores of a reservoir rock are filled by water, oil and gas which may be still or moving.

Variations in pressure, temperature, density and volume can put in motion these fluids along gradients that will move from places with high potential energy to places of lower energy.

A. marginale

A. di fondo

SECONDARY MIGRATION
(through an integrated system composed of permeable rocks, fractures, and faults)

The buoyancy pressure is proportional to the height of the column of oil that accumulates under the cover. The maximum height of the column of oil that can be held in a combination of reservoir and rock cover is called critical height (ho). The seal capacity determines the height of a petroleum column that can be trapped beneath it, and the seal will be breached when the buoyancy pressure (Pb) exceeds the seal capillary entry pressure (Pd).

ho=

2 (1/rt 1/rp) g (w-o)

SECONDARY MIGRATION
(through an integrated system composed of permeable rocks, fractures, and faults)

The distance traveled by the oil from the source rock to the reservoir varies from case to case and, in the case of large fields, may be of the order of tens of kilometers. During migration, the composition of the mixture that makes up the oil changes (splitting), becoming enriched of the lightest and mobile fractions (saturated hydrocarbons and, to a lesser extent, aromatic hydrocarbons)

Tertiary MIGRATION
(through an integrated system composed of permeable rocks, fractures, and faults) Tertiary migration includes leakage, seepage, dissipation, and alteration of petroleum as it reaches the Earths surface.

PETROLEUM TRAPS

Petroleum System Elements

Petroleum System Elements

Anticlinal Trap

Top Seal Rock

(Impermeable)

Reservoir Rock
Potential Migration Route

(Porous/Permeable)

Source Rock

(Organic Rich)

24803

The exact definition of conventional and unconventional reservoirs is vague. In economic terms, a conventional reservoir is one in which a reasonable profit can be made at low oil or gas prices and without requiring large volume stimulation prices and without requiring large volume stimulation treatments. Likewise, an unconventional reservoir can be described as one that requires the higher oil and gas prices and large volume treatments before a reasonable profit can be made.

Trap is the term to describe the body, bounded by seals and containing reservoir, in which petroleum can accumulate as it migrates from the source rock to the Earths surface. There are many different trap geometries. These can be grouped into two categories: Static traps: Structural (anticlines, faults) Stratigraphic (primary and secondary) Traps that combine both elements (mixed) Dynamic traps: the closure is provided by the idrodynamic flux that contrasts the buoyancy pressure

Structural traps are created by tectonic, diapiric, compactional, and gravitational processes. Almost the entire worlds discovered petroleum is in traps that are largely structural. Stratigraphic traps are formed by lithological variations or property variations generated by alteration of the sediment or fluid through diagenesis. Much of the worlds remaining undiscovered petroleum will be found in stratigraphical traps. Purely hydrodynamic traps are rare. Such traps rely on the flow of water through the reservoir horizon to drag the petroleum into a favourable trapping configuration, such as the plunging nose of a fold. .

TRAP CLOSURE
Closure. The vertical distance from the apex of a structure to the lowest structural contour that contains the structure. Measurements of both the areal closure and the distance from the apex to the lowest closing contour are typically incorporated in calculations of the estimated hydrocarbon content of a trap. In map view (top), closure is the area within the deepest structural contour that forms a trapping geometry, in this case 1300 ft [390 m]. In cross section A-A', closure is the vertical distance from the top of the structure to the lowest closing contour, in this case about 350 ft [105 m]. The point beyond which hydrocarbons could leak from or migrate beyond the trap is the spill point.

Trap volume Crest Closure

Spill plain

Splill point

The trap capacity

The following properties must be known or estimated in order for the petroleum volume to be calculated:

1. Net to gross 2. Reservoir effective porosity 3. Permeability 4. Petroleum saturation 5. Reservoir thickness 6. Trap closure

Hydrocarbon Trap Types

Anticline

Fault Pinchout

Salt Dome

Unconformity

American Petroleum Institute, 1986

The Basic Trap

Petroleum Accumulates in Anticlines

Gas Oil Water

Structural traps

Piercement
Fold

Combination fold/fault

Fault

Fold-dominant structural traps

Fold-dominant structural traps

Fault-dominant structural traps

Fault-dominant structural traps

Fault-dominant structural traps

Combination fault-fold structural traps

Combination fault-fold structural traps

Piercement structural traps

A salt dome begins to form when a small part of a wet salt layer rises. That causes other salt in the layer to flow horizontally and then up into a rising plume. If the salt is abundant and saturated with water, friction offers little resistance, and salt will continue to feed into the rising plume. The upturned (or bowl-shaped) layers next to the salt dome can become traps in which oil collects, so understanding salt domes has great economic value.

Piercement structural traps

Piercement structural traps

Combination fault-fold structural traps

Combination fault-fold structural traps

Combination fault-fold structural traps

Stratigraphic traps: due to lateral changes of permeability produced by lateral changes in grainsize

primary

secondary

Secondary stratigraphic traps form as a consequence of cementation or dissolution, but, usually, they are due to the occurrence of unconformities

Oil-gas contact Oil-water contact

Primary and secondary stratigraphic traps

Dynamic traps

dZ/dl=w/(w-o) x dh/dl

An oil play - A particular combination of reservoir, seal, source and trap associated with proven hydrocarbon accumulations. An oil pool - A subsurface oil accumulation. An oil field - Consists of one or more oil pools.

Principles of seismic surveying: (A) onshore, with diagrams showing the various methods of producing the signal, and (B) offshore

Principles of seismic surveys. P = P-wave, S = S-wave

3D Seismic Image of a continental margin

Raster Box display

Three Planes display

Three Planes display

Random Profile display

Random Profile display

Random Profile display

Random Profile display

Random Profile display

Primary recovery
Reservoir fluids (gas, oil, water) are under high pressure (geostatic and hydrostatic pressure) and elevated temperature, any drop in pressure, such as opening the borehole to near atmosferic pressure, will result in an increase in volume, producing flow. Removing a volume of fluid will also lead to drop in pressure. However, the amount of pressure drop depends upon the type of fluid. Gas is highly compressible, so removing a small amount of gas will not appreciably affect reservoir pressures. In contrast, oil is not very compressible, so removing oil will create a measurable drop in reservoir pressure, unless the volume removed is replenished by another fluid (e.g., water).
The natural expansion of reservoir fluids is the primary energy source for initial production

The recovery efficiency depends on the nature of mechanisms providing pressure to the pool.

Primary recovery
Simple expansion: Oil and water are not very compressible, so that drop in reservoir pressure, does not generate a significant increase in oil volume.

5-6% liquids, more than 90% gas

Primary recovery
There are two basic types of primary drive mechanisms: gas drive and water drive.
Gas drive. There are two types of gas drive mechanisms: gas cap and solution gas (depletion) drive. Both mechanisms function through the expansion of gas and the volumetric displacement of oil. The difference between them is the presence or absence of an initial gas cap.

Primary recovery
The gas cap drive is a reservoir containing free-gas in the highest point of the trap, as a gas cap. Reservoir pressure is maintained by expansion of the gas within the gas cap.
Gas cap expansion 20-40% of liquids

The gas solution (depletion) mechanism lacks an initial free gas cap. A pressure drop, due to initial withdrawal of oil from the reservoir causes gas to come out of solution . The dissociation and expansion of gas drives the oil. The moviment of the gas within the reservoir will be generally upwards towards the crest of the trap to form a gas cap.
Very high for gas, 5-30% liquids

Primary recovery
The water drive: the water drive mechanism occurs because the natural hydrodynamic flow into the structure maintains pressure beneath the pooled oil, driving the oil upwards. A natural water drive mechanism occurs when the underlying aquifer is large and capable of undergoing recharge.

35-70% liquids

Secondary recovery
Over the lifetime of the well the pressure will fall, and at some point there will be insufficient underground pressure to force the oil to the surface. After natural reservoir drive diminishes, secondary recovery methods are applied. They rely on the supply of external energy into the reservoir in the form of injecting fluids to increase reservoir pressure, hence replacing or increasing the natural reservoir drive with an artificial drive. Secondary recovery techniques increase the reservoir's pressure by water injection, natural gas reinjection and gas lift, which injects air, carbon dioxide or some other gas into the bottom of a production well, reducing the overall density of fluid in the wellbore. Typical recovery factors depend on the properties of oil and the characteristics of the reservoir rock. On average, the recovery factor after primary and secondary oil recovery operations is between 30 and 50%

Secondary oil recovery

Gas injection

Gas injection is presently the most-commonly used approach to enhanced recovery. Unwanted gas is injected into the gas cap or oil-bearing stratum under high pressure. That pressure pushes the oil into the pipe and up to the surface. In addition to the beneficial effect of the pressure, this method sometimes aids recovery by reducing the viscosity of the crude oil as the gas mixes with it. Gases commonly used include CO2, natural gas or nitrogen.

Secondary oil recovery

Water flood

Tertiary (enhanced) oil recovery

The third stage of hydrocarbon production during which sophisticated techniques that alter the original properties of the oil are used. Enhanced oil recovery can begin after a secondary recovery process or at any time during the productive life of an oil reservoir. Its purpose is not only to restore formation pressure, but also to improve oil displacement or fluid flow in the reservoir. The three major types of enhanced oil recovery operations are chemical flooding (alkaline flooding or micellar polymer flooding), miscible displacement (carbon dioxide [CO2] injection or hydrocarbon injection), and thermal recovery (steam flood or in situ combustion). The optimal application of each type depends on reservoir temperature, pressure, depth, net pay, permeability, residual oil and water saturations, porosity and fluid properties Chemical techniques: utilize reagents that change the physical properties of the produced fluid or the displacement fluid. Miscible processes: Miscible fluids are utilized to produce oil that could potentially become residual oil. This is achieved by injecting a fluid that mixes with the produced fluid. Typical miscible fluids are organic-based solvents, CO2 Thermal techniques: reduce the viscosity of oil within the reservoir .

Thermally enhanced oil recovery methods (TEOR) are tertiary recovery techniques that heat the oil, thus reducing its viscosity and making it easier to extract.

Steam injection is the most common form of TEOR. In-situ burning is another form of TEOR, but instead of steam, some of the oil is burned to heat the surrounding oil.

Hierarchy

Meander belt (field)

Pool (Meander scroll)

Pool

Total volume in the order of tens of billions of m3

Meander scroll (pool)

Total volume in the order of few billions of m3

Channel, point bar and crevasse-splay

Total volume in the order of several tens of millions of m3

5 orders of migrating and overlapping bedforms of varying type and dimensions are present

Channel, point bar and crevasse-splay

Total volume in the order of several tens of millions of m3

Lobe sheet

Level 4 heterogeneity

Bedding unit

Mud-laminae between and within bedsets are the result of flow separation and variation in flow regime.

Sech et al. (2009)

Hierarchical orders of internal complexity observed in the Torre Saracena section. The main feature of the first-order units is alternation of thicker and thinner packages of dunes. Each unit is, in turn, internally characterized by alternating simple and compound second-order foreset units. Tidal bundles are the main features of the third-order units, whilst bioclastic and siliciclastic packages of laminae typify fourth-order units (see text for explanation). Longhitano et al. (2010)