nervous sysLem and CnS

uncLlons of Lhe nervous SysLem

1 Sensory lnpuL
2 lnLegraLlon
3 MoLor ouLpuL
Figure 11.1
Sensory input
Motor output
Integration
lvlslons of Lhe nervous SysLem
W CenLral nervous sysLem (CnS)
W erlpheral nervous sysLem (nS)
erlpheral nervous SysLem (nS)
1 Sensory (afferenL) dlvlslon
2 MoLor (efferenL) dlvlslon
MoLor lvlslon of nS
1 SomaLlc (volunLary) nervous sysLem
2 AuLonomlc (lnvolunLary) nervous sysLem
(AnS)
lsLology of nervous 1lssue
W 1wo prlnclpal cell Lypes
1 neuronsexclLable cells LhaL LransmlL elecLrlcal
slgnals
2 neuroglla (gllal cells)supporLlng cells
W AsLrocyLes (CnS)
W Mlcroglla (CnS)
W Lpendymal cells (CnS)
W CllgodendrocyLes (CnS)
W SaLelllLe cells (nS)
W Schwann cells (nS)
neurons (nerve Cells)
W Speclal characLerlsLlcs
Longllved (F100 years or more)
AmlLoLlcwlLh few excepLlons
lgh meLabollc raLedepends on conLlnuous
supply of oxygen and glucose
lasma membrane funcLlons ln
W LlecLrlcal slgnallng
W CellLocell lnLeracLlons durlng developmenL
rocesses
W endrlLes and axons
W 8undles of processes are called
1racLs ln Lhe CnS
nerves ln Lhe nS
Axons uncLlon
W Molecules and organelles are moved along
axons by moLor molecules ln Lwo dlrecLlons
AnLerograde
8eLrograde
Myelln SheaLh
W SegmenLed proLelnllpold sheaLh around mosL
long or largedlameLer axons
W lL funcLlons Lo
roLecL and elecLrlcally lnsulaLe Lhe axon
lncrease speed of nerve lmpulse Lransmlsslon
Myelln SheaLhs ln Lhe nS
W Schwann cells wraps many Llmes around Lhe
axon
Myelln sheaLhconcenLrlc layers of Schwann cell
membrane
W neurllemmaperlpheral bulge of Schwann
cell cyLoplasm
Myelln SheaLhs ln Lhe CnS
W ormed by processes of ollgodendrocyLes noL
Lhe whole cells
W nodes of 8anvler are presenL
W no neurllemma
W 1hlnnesL flbers are unmyellnaLed
Figure 11.5a
{a_ Myelination of a nerve
fiber {axon_
Schwann ceII
cytopIasm
Axon
NeuriIemma
MyeIin sheath
Schwann ceII
nucIeus
Schwann ceII
pIasma membrane
1
2
3
A Schwann ceII
enveIopes an axon.
The Schwann ceII then
rotates around the axon,
wrapping its pIasma
membrane IooseIy around
it in successive Iayers.
The Schwann ceII
cytopIasm is forced from
between the membranes.
The tight membrane
wrappings surrounding
the axon form the myeIin
sheath.
JhlLe MaLLer and Cray MaLLer
W JhlLe maLLer
W Cray maLLer
SLrucLural ClasslflcaLlon of neurons
W 1hree Lypes
1 MulLlpolar
2 8lpolar1 axon and 1 dendrlLe
3 unlpolar (pseudounlpolar
uncLlonal ClasslflcaLlon of neurons
W 1hree Lypes
1 Sensory (afferenL)
2 MoLor (efferenL)
3 lnLerneurons (assoclaLlon neurons)
8ole of Membrane lon Channels
W 1wo maln Lypes of lon channels
1 Leakage (nongaLed) channelsalways open
2 CaLed channels (Lhree Lypes)
Figure 11.6
{b_ Voltage-gated ion channels open and close in response
to changes in membrane voltage.
Na
+
Na
+
Closed Open
Receptor
{a_ Chemically {ligand_ gated ion channels open when the
appropriate neurotransmitter binds to the receptor,
allowing {in this case_ simultaneous movement of
Na
+
and K
+
.
Na
+
K
+
K
+
Na
+
Neurotransmitter chemicaI
attached to receptor
ChemicaI
binds
Closed Open
Membrane
voItage
changes
8esLlng Membrane oLenLlal (vr)
W oLenLlal dlfference across Lhe membrane of a
resLlng cell
W lfferences ln lonlc makeup
W lfferenLlal permeablllLy of membrane
Figure 11.7
VoItmeter
MicroeIectrode
inside ceII
PIasma
membrane
Ground eIectrode
outside ceII
Neuron
Axon
Figure 11.8
inally, let's add a pump to compensate
for leaking ions.
Na
+
-K
+
ATPases {pumps_ maintain the
concentration gradients, resulting in the
resting membrane potential.
8uppose a cell has only K
+
channels...
K
+
loss through abundant leakage
channels establishes a negative
membrane potential.
Now, let's add some Na
+
channels to our cell...
Na
+
entry through leakage channels reduces
the negative membrane potential slightly.
The permeabilities of Na
+
and K
+
across the
membrane are different.
The concentrations of Na
+
and K
+
on each side of the membrane are different.
Na
+
(140 mM
K
+
(5 mM
K
+
Ieakage channeIs
CeII interior
-90 mV
CeII interior
-70 mV
CeII interior
-70 mV
K
+
Na
+
Na+-K+ pump
K
+
K
+
K
+
K
+
Na
+
K
+
K
+
K
Na
+
K
+
K
+
Na
+
K
+
K
+
Outside ceII
Inside cell
Na
+
-K
+
ATPases (pumps
maintain the concentration
gradients of Na
+
and K
+
across the membrane.
The Na
+
concentration
is higher outside the
ceII.
The K
+
concentration
is higher inside the
ceII.
K
+
(140 mM
Na
+
(15 mM
Membrane oLenLlals
W Membrane poLenLlal changes when
ConcenLraLlons of lons across Lhe membrane
change
ermeablllLy of membrane Lo lons changes
W Changes ln membrane poLenLlal are slgnals
used Lo recelve lnLegraLe and send
lnformaLlon
Changes ln Membrane oLenLlal
W epolarlzaLlon
A reducLlon ln membrane poLenLlal (Loward zero)
lnslde of Lhe membrane becomes less negaLlve
Lhan Lhe resLlng poLenLlal
lncreases Lhe probablllLy of produclng a nerve
lmpulse
Craded oLenLlals
W ShorLllved locallzed changes ln membrane
poLenLlal
W Craded poLenLlal spreads as local currenLs
change Lhe membrane poLenLlal of ad[acenL
reglons
Figure 11.10a
DepoIarized region
StimuIus
PIasma
membrane
{a_ Depolarization: A smaII patch of the
membrane (red area has become depoIarized.
Figure 11.10b
{b_ 8pread of depolarization: The IocaI currents
(bIack arrows that are created depoIarize
adjacent membrane areas and aIIow the wave of
depoIarization to spread.
Action
potential
1
2 3
4
Resting state Depolarization Repolarization
Hyperpolarization
The big picture
1 1
2
3
4
Time {ms_
ThreshoId
M
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

{
m
V
_
Figure 11.11 (1 of 5
roperLles of CaLed Channels
W roperLles of gaLed channels
W Lach k
+
channel has one volLagesenslLlve gaLe
W Cpens slowly wlLh depolarlzaLlon
1hreshold
W AL Lhreshold
Membrane ls depolarlzed by 13 Lo 20 mv
na
+
permeablllLy lncreases
na lnflux exceeds k
+
efflux
1he poslLlve feedback cycle beglns
ConducLlon veloclLy
W LffecL of axon dlameLer
W LffecL of myellnaLlon
ConducLlon veloclLy
W LffecLs of myellnaLlon
Myelln sheaLhs lnsulaLe and prevenL leakage of
charge
SalLaLory conducLlon ln myellnaLed axons ls abouL
30 Llmes fasLer
W volLagegaLed na
+
channels are locaLed aL Lhe nodes
W As appear Lo [ump rapldly from node Lo node
Figure 11.15
Size of voItage
VoItage-gated
ion channeI
StimuIus
MyeIin
sheath
StimuIus
StimuIus
Node of Ranvier
MyeIin sheath
1 mm
nerve lber ClasslflcaLlon
W nerve flbers are classlfled accordlng Lo
lameLer
egree of myellnaLlon
Speed of conducLlon
1he Synapse
W A [uncLlon LhaL medlaLes lnformaLlon Lransfer
from one neuron
1o anoLher neuron or
1o an effecLor cell
W resynapLlc neuronconducLs lmpulses
Loward Lhe synapse
W osLsynapLlc neuronLransmlLs lmpulses
away from Lhe synapse
1ypes of Synapses
W AxodendrlLlcbeLween Lhe axon of one
neuron and Lhe dendrlLe of anoLher
W AxosomaLlcbeLween Lhe axon of one neuron
and Lhe soma of anoLher
W Less common Lypes
Axoaxonlc (axon Lo axon)
endrodendrlLlc (dendrlLe Lo dendrlLe)
endrosomaLlc (dendrlLe Lo soma)
Synapses
W LlecLrlcal Synapses
W Chemlcal Synapses
SynapLlc ClefL
W luldfllled space separaLlng Lhe presynapLlc
and posLsynapLlc neurons
W revenLs nerve lmpulses from dlrecLly passlng
from one neuron Lo Lhe nexL
Figure 11.17
Action potentiaI
arrives at axon terminaI.
VoItage-gated Ca
2+
channeIs open and Ca
2+
enters the axon terminaI.
Ca
2+
entry causes
neurotransmitter-
containing synaptic
vesicIes to reIease their
contents by exocytosis.
Chemical synapses
transmit signals from
one neuron to another
using neurotransmitters.
Ca
2+
Synaptic
vesicIes
Axon
terminaI
Mitochondrion
Postsynaptic
neuron
Presynaptic
neuron
Presynaptic
neuron
8ynaptic
cleft
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
Neurotransmitter
diffuses across the synaptic
cIeft and binds to specific
receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane.
Binding of neurotransmitter
opens ion channeIs, resuIting in
graded potentiaIs.
Neurotransmitter effects are
terminated by reuptake through
transport proteins, enzymatic
degradation, or diffusion away
from the synapse.
Ion movement
Graded potentiaI
Reuptake
Enzymatic
degradation
Diffusion away
from synapse
Postsynaptic
neuron
1
2
3
4
5
6
1ermlnaLlon of neuroLransmlLLer
LffecLs
W JlLhln a few mllllseconds Lhe
neuroLransmlLLer effecL ls LermlnaLed
egradaLlon by enzymes
8eupLake by asLrocyLes or axon Lermlnal
lffuslon away from Lhe synapLlc clefL
osLsynapLlc oLenLlals
W Craded poLenLlals
W SLrengLh deLermlned by
AmounL of neuroLransmlLLer released
1lme Lhe neuroLransmlLLer ls ln Lhe area
W 1ypes of posLsynapLlc poLenLlals
1 LSexclLaLory posLsynapLlc poLenLlals
2 lSlnhlblLory posLsynapLlc poLenLlals
LxclLaLory Synapses and LSs
W neuroLransmlLLer blnds Lo and opens
chemlcally gaLed channels LhaL allow
slmulLaneous flow of na
+
and k
+
ln opposlLe
dlrecLlons
W na
+
lnflux ls greaLer LhaL k
+
efflux causlng a
neL depolarlzaLlon
W LS helps Lrlgger A aL axon hlllock lf LS ls
of Lhreshold sLrengLh and opens Lhe volLage
gaLed channels
lnhlblLory Synapses and lSs
W neuroLransmlLLer blnds Lo and opens channels
for k
+
or Cl

W Causes a hyperpolarlzaLlon (Lhe lnner surface

of membrane becomes more negaLlve)
W 8educes Lhe posLsynapLlc neuron's ablllLy Lo
produce an acLlon poLenLlal
lnLegraLlon SummaLlon
W A slngle LS cannoL lnduce an acLlon
poLenLlal
W LSs can summaLe Lo reach Lhreshold
W lSs can also summaLe wlLh LSs cancellng
each oLher ouL
lnLegraLlon SummaLlon
W 1emporal summaLlon
W SpaLlal summaLlon
neuroLransmlLLers
W MosL neurons make Lwo or more
neuroLransmlLLers whlch are released aL
dlfferenL sLlmulaLlon frequencles
W 30 or more neuroLransmlLLers have been
ldenLlfled
W Classlfled by chemlcal sLrucLure and by
funcLlon
neuroLransmlLLers
W AceLylchollne (Ach)
W 8logenlc amlnes
neuroLransmlLLers
W neuroLransmlLLer effecLs may be exclLaLory
(depolarlzlng) and/or lnhlblLory (hyperpolarlzlng)
W lrecL acLlon
W lndlrecL acLlon
ChannelLlnked (lonoLroplc) 8ecepLors
W LlgandgaLed lon channels
W AcLlon ls lmmedlaLe and brlef
W LxclLaLory recepLors are channels for small
caLlons
W na
+
lnflux conLrlbuLes mosL Lo depolarlzaLlon
W lnhlblLory recepLors allow Cl

lnflux or k
+
efflux
LhaL causes hyperpolarlzaLlon
Figure 11.20a
Ion fIow bIocked
CIosed ion channeI
{a_ Channel-linked receptors open in response to binding
of Iigand (ACh in this case.
Ions fIow
Ligand
Open ion channeI
aLLerns of neural rocesslng
W Serlal processlng
W arallel processlng
Figure 11.23
1
2
3
4
5
Receptor
Sensory neuron
Integration center
Motor neuron
Effector
StimuIus
Response
SpinaI cord (CNS
Interneuron
CenLral nervous SysLem
W CnS
8raln
Splnal (nerve) Cord
Cerebral JhlLe MaLLer
W MyellnaLed flbers and Lhelr LracLs
W 8esponslble for communlcaLlon
1halamus
W Areas of lmporLance
W ypoLhalamus
W LplLhalamus
8raln SLem
W 1hree reglons
Mldbraln
ons
Medulla oblongaLa
1he Cerebellum
W 11 of braln mass
W orsal Lo Lhe pons and medulla
W Subconsclously provldes preclse Llmlng and
approprlaLe paLLerns of skeleLal muscle
conLracLlon
Cerebellar rocesslng for MoLor
AcLlvlLy
W Cerebellum recelves lmpulses from Lhe cerebral corLex of
Lhe lnLenL Lo lnlLlaLe volunLary muscle conLracLlon
W Slgnals from proprlocepLors and vlsual and equlllbrlum
paLhways conLlnuously lnform" Lhe cerebellum of Lhe
body's poslLlon and momenLum
W Cerebellar corLex calculaLes Lhe besL way Lo smooLhly
coordlnaLe a muscle conLracLlon
W A blueprlnL" of coordlnaLed movemenL ls senL Lo Lhe
cerebral moLor corLex and Lo braln sLem nuclel
CognlLlve uncLlon of Lhe Cerebellum
W 8ecognlzes and predlcLs sequences of evenLs
durlng complex movemenLs
W lays a role ln nonmoLor funcLlons such as
word assoclaLlon and puzzle solvlng
uncLlonal 8raln SysLems
W neLworks of neurons LhaL work LogeLher and
span wlde areas of Lhe braln
Llmblc sysLem
8eLlcular formaLlon
Llmblc SysLem
W SLrucLures on Lhe medlal aspecLs of cerebral
hemlspheres and dlencephalon
W lncludes parLs of Lhe dlencephalon and some
cerebral sLrucLures LhaL enclrcle Lhe braln
sLem
8eLlcular ormaLlon
W 1hree broad columns along Lhe lengLh of Lhe
braln sLem
8aphe nuclel
Medlal (large cell) group of nuclel
LaLeral (small cell) group of nuclel
W as farflung axonal connecLlons wlLh
hypoLhalamus Lhalamus cerebral corLex
cerebellum and splnal cord
8raln Javes
W aLLerns of neuronal elecLrlcal acLlvlLy
W CeneraLed by synapLlc acLlvlLy ln Lhe corLex
W Lach person's braln waves are unlque
W Can be grouped lnLo four classes based on
frequency measured as erLz (z)
Figure 12.20b
Alpha waves-awake but reIaxed
Beta waves-awake, aIert
Theta waves-common in chiIdren
Delta waves-deep sIeep
{b_ Brain waves shown in EEGs fall into
four general classes.
1-second intervaI
Consclousness
W Consclous percepLlon of sensaLlon
W volunLary lnlLlaLlon and conLrol of movemenL
W CapablllLles assoclaLed wlLh hlgher menLal
processlng (memory loglc [udgmenL eLc)
W Loss of consclousness (eg falnLlng or
syncopy) ls a slgnal LhaL braln funcLlon ls
lmpalred
roLecLlon of Lhe 8raln
W 8one (skull)
W Membranes (menlnges)
W JaLery cushlon (cerebrosplnal fluld)
W 8loodbraln barrler
Splnal Cord
W LocaLlon
W uncLlons
Splnal Cord
W Splnal nerves
W Cervlcal and lumbar enlargemenLs
W Cauda equlna
CrossSecLlonal AnaLomy
W 1wo lengLhwlse grooves dlvlde cord lnLo rlghL
and lefL halves
venLral (anLerlor) medlan flssure
orsal (posLerlor) medlan sulcus
W Cray commlssureconnecLs masses of gray
maLLer encloses cenLral canal
Ascendlng aLhways
W ConslsL of Lhree neurons
W lrsLorder neuron
W Secondorder neuron
W 1hlrdorder neuron
AnLerolaLeral aLhways
W LaLeral and venLral splnoLhalamlc LracLs
W 1ransmlL paln LemperaLure and coarse Louch
lmpulses wlLhln Lhe laLeral splnoLhalamlc LracL
Splnocerebellar 1racLs
W venLral and dorsal LracLs
W Convey lnformaLlon abouL muscle or Lendon
sLreLch Lo Lhe cerebellum
escendlng aLhways and 1racLs
W ellver efferenL lmpulses from Lhe braln Lo Lhe
splnal cord
1 upper moLor neurons
W yramldal cells ln prlmary moLor corLex
2 Lower moLor neurons
W venLral horn moLor neurons
W lnnervaLe skeleLal muscles
1he lrecL (yramldal) SysLem
W lmpulses from pyramldal neurons ln Lhe
precenLral gyrl pass Lhrough Lhe pyramldal
(corLlcosplnal)l LracLs
W Axons synapse wlLh lnLerneurons or venLral
horn moLor neurons
W 1he dlrecL paLhway regulaLes fasL and flne
(skllled) movemenLs
lndlrecL (LxLrapyramldal) SysLem
W lncludes Lhe braln sLem moLor nuclel and all
moLor paLhways excepL pyramldal paLhways
W 1hese paLhways are complex and
mulLlsynapLlc and regulaLe