Lect18 f03

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 1
AC Circuits

|
e
|
|
i
m
R
i
m
eL

i
m
eC
c
m
~
c
N
2
N
1
(primary) (secondary)
iron
V
2
V
1
Lecture Outline
Driven Series LCR Circuit:
General solution
Resonance condition
Resonant frequency
Sharpness of resonance = Q
Power considerations
Power factor depends on impedance
Transformers
Voltage changes
Faradays Law in action gives induced primary current.
Power considerations
Text Reference: Chapter 33.4-6
Phasors
A phasor is a vector whose magnitude is the maximum value of a quantity (eg V or I)
and which rotates counterclockwise in a 2-d plane with angular velocity e. Recall
uniform circular motion:
The projections of r (on
the vertical y axis) execute
sinusoidal oscillation.

i
L
t
L
m
=
c
e
e cos
i C t
C m
= e c e cos
i
R
t
R
m
=
c
e sin
x r t = cose
y r t = sine
V Ri t
R R m
= = c e sin
R: V in phase with i
V
Q
C
t
C m
= = c e sin C: V lags i by 90
V L
di
dt
t
L
L
m
= = c e sin L: V leads i by 90
e
x
y
y
Phasors for L,C,R
i
et
e
V
R
i
et
e
V
L
i
et
e
V
C

Suppose:
V Ri t
R m
= sine
V
C
i t
C m
=
1
e
e cos
V Li t
L m
= e e cos
t
i
V
R
0
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
V
C
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
0
i
i
0
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
V
L
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
1.01
1.01
f( ) x
6.28 0 x
Series LCR
AC Circuit
Back to the original problem: the loop
equation gives:
Here all unknowns, (i
m
,|) , must be found from the loop eqn; the initial conditions
have been taken care of by taking the emf to be: c = c
m
sinet.
To solve this problem graphically, first write down expressions
for the voltages across R,C, and L and then plot the appropriate
phasor diagram.
L
C
~
c
R
L
d Q
dt
Q
C
R
dQ
dt
t
m
2
2
+ + = c e sin
Assume a solution of the form:
i i t
m
= sin( ) e |
Phasors: LCR
Assume:
From these equations, we can draw the phasor
diagram to the right.

|
e
|
|
i
m
R
i
m
eL

i
m
eC
c
m
L
C
~
c
R
Given:
c c e =
m
t sin

This picture corresponds to a snapshot at t=0. The
projections of these phasors along the vertical axis
are the actual values of the voltages at the given
time.
Phasors: LCR
The phasor diagram has been relabeled in terms of the
reactances defined from:

|
e
|
|
i
m
R
c
m
i
m
X
C
i
m
X
L
L
C
~
c
R
X
C
C
1
e
X L
L
e
The unknowns (i
m
,|) can now be solved for
graphically since the vector sum of the voltages
V
L
+ V
C
+ V
R
must sum to the driving emf c.
Lecture 20, ACT 3
A driven RLC circuit is connected as shown.
For what frequencies e of the voltage
source is the current through the resistor
largest?
(a) e small
(b) e large (c)
e =
1
LC
L
C
~
c R
e
Conceptual Question
A driven RLC circuit is connected as shown.
For what frequencies e of the voltage
source is the current through the resistor
largest?
(a) e small
(b) e large (c)
L
C
~
c R
e =
1
LC
e
This is NOT a series RLC circuit. We cannot blindly apply our
techniques for solving the circuit. We must think a little bit.
However, we can use the frequency dependence of the impedances
(reactances) to answer this question.
The reactance of an inductor = X
L
= eL.
The reactance of a capacitor = X
C
= 1/(eC).
Therefore,
in the low frequency limit, X
L
0 and X
C
.
Therefore, as e 0, the current will flow mostly through the
inductor; the current through the capacitor approaches 0.
in the high frequency limit, X
L
and X
C
0 .
Therefore, as e , the current will flow mostly through the
capacitor, approaching a maximum i
max
= c/R.
Phasors:LCR
i
m
R
c
m
|
i
m
(X
L
-X
C
)

|
|
|
i
m
R
c
m
i
m
X
C
i
m
X
L
X
C
C
1
e
X L
L
e
( )
Z R X X
L C
+
2
2
tan| =
X X
R
L C
( )
( )
c
m m L C
i R X X
2 2 2
2
= +
( )
i
R X X
Z
m
m
L C
m
=
+
=
c c
2
2
Phasors:Tips
This phasor diagram was drawn as a
snapshot of time t=0 with the voltages
being given as the projections along the
y-axis.
|
|
|
i
m
R
c
m
i
m
X
C
i
m
X
L
y
x
|
i
m
R
i
m
X
L
i
m
X
C
c
m
Full Phasor Diagram
From this diagram, we can also create a
triangle which allows us to calculate the
impedance Z:
X X
L C
|
Z
R
Impedance Triangle
Sometimes, in working problems, it is
easier to draw the diagram at a time when
the current is along the x-axis (when i=0).
Phasors:LCR
We have found the general solution for the driven LCR circuit:
X L
L
e
X
C
C
1
e
( )
Z R X X
L C
+
2
2
R
X
L
X
C
|
Z
tan| =
X X
R
L C
i
Z
m
m
=
c

c = i Z
m
the loop
eqn
X
L
- X
C

i i t
m
= sin( ) e |
|
i
m
R
i
m
X
L
i
m
X
C
c
m
e
Lagging & Leading
The phase | between the current and the driving emf depends on the
relative magnitudes of the inductive and capacitive reactances.
|
R
X
L
X
C
Z
tan| =
X X
R
L C
i
Z
m
m
=
c
X L
L
e
X
C
C
1
e
X
L
> X
C

| > 0
current
LAGS
applied voltage
|
R
X
L
X
C
Z
X
L
< X
C

| < 0
current
LEADS
applied voltage
X
L
= X
C

| = 0
current
IN PHASE
applied voltage
R
X
L
X
C
Z
Conceptual Question
The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a
generator with voltage c = c
m
sinet. The time
dependence of the current i which flows in the
circuit is shown in the plot.
How should e be changed to
bring the current and driving
voltage into phase?
(a) increase e (b) decrease e (c) impossible
Which of the following phasors represents the current i at t=0?
1B
1A
(a) (b) (c)
i
i
i
Lecture 21, ACT 1
m
sinet. The time
voltage into phase?
1A
L
C
~
c
R
0
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
2 4 6
1
0
1
1.01
1.01
f( ) x
6.81 .53 x
i
o
i
m
-i
m
0
i
t
From the plot, it is clear that the current is LEADING the applied voltage.
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
f( ) x
x
c
i
c
X
C
X
L
Therefore, the
phasor diagram must
look like this:
Therefore, X X
C L
>
To bring the current into phase
with the applied voltage, we need
to increase X
L
and decrease X
C
.
Increasing e will do both!!
Lecture 21, ACT 1
m
sinet. The time
voltage into phase?
Which of the following phasors represents the current i at t=0?
(a) (b) (c)
1A
1B
L
C
~
c
R
0
x .. , 0
r1
n
r1
2 4 6
1
0
1
1.01
1.01
f( ) x
6.81 .53 x
i
o
i
m
-i
m
0
i
t
i
i
i
The projection
of i along the
vertical axis is
negative here.
no way jose
e
The sign of i is
correct at t=0.
However, it
soon will become
negative!
nope
e
This one looks
just right!!
| = -30
Resonance
For fixed R,C,L the current i
m
will be a maximum at the resonant frequency e
0

which makes the impedance Z purely resistive.
the frequency at which this condition is obtained is given from:

Note that this resonant frequency is identical to the natural
frequency of the LC circuit by itself!
At this frequency, the current and the driving voltage are in
phase!
ie:
( )
i
Z
R X X
m
m m
L C
= =
+
c c
2
2
reaches a maximum when:
X X
L C
=
e
e
o
o
L
C
=
1
e
o
LC
=
1
tan| =
=
X X
R
L C
0
Resonance
The current in an LCR circuit depends on the values of the elements and
on the driving frequency through the relation
( )
i
Z
R X X
m
m m
L C
= =
+
c c
2
2
i
R R
m
m m
=
+
=
c
|
c
|
1
1
2
tan
cos
x .. , 0.0
r1
n
r1
0 1 2
0
0.5
1
f( ) x
g( ) x
x
i
m
0
0
2e
o
e
c
m
R
0
R=R
o
R=2R
o
Suppose you plot the current versus e, the
source voltage frequency, you would get:
Power in LCR Circuit
The power supplied by the emf in a series LCR circuit depends on the frequency e.
It will turn out that the maximum power is supplied at the resonant frequency e
0
.
The instantaneous power (for some frequency, e) delivered at
time t is given by:
The most useful quantity to consider here is not the
instantaneous power but rather the average power delivered in
a cycle.
To evaluate the average on the right, we first expand the sin(et-
|) term.
Remember what
this stands for
Expanding,
Taking the averages,
Generally:
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
1.01
1.01
h( ) x
6.28 0 x
sinetcoset
et
0 2t
0
+1
-1
x .. , 0.0
r1
n
r1
0 2 4 6
1
0
1
h( ) x
x
sin
2
et
et
0 2t
0
+1
-1
Putting it all back together again,
(Product of even and odd function = 0)
0
1/2
This result is often rewritten in terms of rms values:

c c
rms m
1
2
i i
rms m
1
2
( ) = P t i
rms rms
( ) cos c |
Power delivered depends on the phase, |, the power factor
phase depends on the values of L, C, R, and e
therefore...
Power in RLC
Power, as well as current, peaks at e = e
0
. The sharpness of the resonance depends
on the values of the components.
Recall:
( ) = P t i
rms rms
( ) cos c |
Therefore,
We can write this in the following manner (you can do the algebra):
introducing the curious factors Q and x...
o
x
e
e
=
R
L
Q
o
e
=
The Q factor
A parameter Q is often defined to describe the sharpness of
resonance peaks in both mechanical and electrical oscillating
systems. Q is defined as
where U
max
is max energy stored in the system and AU is the
energy dissipated in one cycle
For RLC circuit, U
max
is (e.g.)
And losses only in R, namely
period
This gives
And for completeness, note
Power in RLC
<P>
0
0
2e
o
e
c
2
0
rms
R
R=R
o
R=2R
o
x .. , 0.0
r1
n
r1
0 1 2
0
0.5
1
f( ) x
g( ) x
x
Q=3
FWHM
For Q > few,
fwhm
Q
res
e
~
Conceptual Question 2
Consider the two circuits shown where C
II
= 2 C
I
.
What is the relation between the quality
factors, Q
I
and Q
II
, of the two circuits?
(a) Q
II
< Q
I
(b) Q
II
= Q
I
(c) Q
II
> Q
I

(a) P
II
< P
I
(b) P
II
= P
I
(c) P
II
> P
I

What is the relation between P
I
and P
II
, the power delivered by
the generator to the circuit when each circuit is operated at its
resonant frequency?
2B
2A
L
C
~
c
R
I
L
C
~
c
R
II
Lecture 21, ACT 2
II
= 2 C
I
.
factors, Q
I
and Q
II
(a) Q
II
< Q
I
(b) Q
II
= Q
I
(c) Q
II
> Q
I

2A
L
C
~
c
R
I
L
C
~
c
R
II
We know the definition of Q: Q
L
R
e
0
At first glance, it looks like Q is independent of C.
At second glance, we see this cannot be true, since the resonant
frequency e
o
depends on C!
e
0
1
=
LC
Doubling C decreases e
o
by sqrt(2)!
Doubling C decreases Q by sqrt(2)!
Doubling C increases the width of the resonance!
Lecture 21, ACT 2
II
= 2 C
I
.
factors, Q
I
and Q
II
(a) Q
II
< Q
I
(b) Q
II
= Q
I
(c) Q
II
> Q
I

What is the relation between P
I
and P
II
, the power delivered by
the generator to the circuit when each circuit is operated at its
resonant frequency?
(a) P
II
< P
I
(b) P
II
= P
I
(c) P
II
> P
I

2A
2B
L
C
~
c
R
I
L
C
~
c
R
II
At the resonant frequency, the impedance of the circuit is purely
resistive.
Since the resistances in each circuit are the same, the impedances at
the resonant frequency for each circuit are equal.
Therefore, The power delivered by the generator to each circuit is
identical.
Power Transmission
How can we transport power from power stations to homes? Why do we use high tension lines?
At home, the AC voltage obtained from outlets in this country is 120V at
60Hz.
Transmission of power is typically at very high voltages ( eg ~500 kV)
Transformers are used to raise the voltage for transmission and lower the
voltage for use. Well describe these next.
But why?
Calculate ohmic losses in the transmission lines:
Define efficiency of transmission:
in
2
in
in
in
in in
2
in
in
out
V
R P
1
V
V
V
iR
1
iV
R i iV
P
P
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
= c
Note for fixed input power and line resistance, the inefficiency 1/V
2
Example: Quebec to Montreal
1000 km R= 220O
suppose P
in
= 500 MW
With V
in
=735kV, c = 80%.
The efficiency goes to zero quickly if
V
in
were lowered!
Keep R
small
Make
V
in
big
Transformers
~
c
N
2
N
1
AC voltages can be stepped up
or stepped down by the use of
transformers.
iron
The AC current in the primary circuit creates a
time-varying magnetic field in the iron
The iron is used to maximize the mutual inductance. We
assume that the entire flux produced by each turn of the
primary is trapped in the iron.
V
2
V
1
This induces an emf on the secondary
windings due to the mutual inductance of the
two sets of coils.
Ideal Transformers (no load)
The primary circuit is just an AC voltage source in series with an
inductor. The change in flux produced in each turn is given by:
~
c
N
2
N
1
iron
V
2
V
1
1
1 turn
N
V
dt
d
=
|
The change in flux per turn in the secondary coil is the
same as the change in flux per turn in the primary coil
(ideal case). The induced voltage appearing across the
secondary coil is given by:
Therefore,
N
2
> N
1
secondary V
2
is larger than primary V
1
(step-up)
N
1
> N
2
secondary V
2
is smaller than primary V
1
(step-down)

Note: no load means no current in secondary. The primary current,
termed the magnetizing current is small!
V N
d
dt
N
N
V
turn
2 2
2
1
1
= =
|
No resistance losses All flux contained in iron
Nothing connected on secondary
Ideal Transformers
What happens when we connect a resistive load to
the secondary coil?
Flux produced by primary coil
induces an emf in secondary
~
c
N
2
N
1
iron
V
2
V
1
R
i
V
R
2
2
=
i
N
N
i
1
2
1
2
=
with a Load
This changing flux appears in the primary
circuit as well; the sense of it is to reduce
the emf in the primary...
However, V
1
is a voltage source.
Therefore, there must be an increased
current i
1
(supplied by the voltage source) in
the primary which produces a flux N
1
i
1

which exactly cancels the flux produced by
i
2
.
emf in secondary produces current i
2

This current produces a flux in the
secondary coil N
2
i
2
, which opposes the
original flux -- Lenzs law
Transformers with a Load
With a resistive load in the secondary, the primary current
is given by:
~
c
N
2
N
1
iron
V
2
V
1
R
This is the equivalent resistance seen by the source.
2
2
2
1
1
1
N
N
R R
i
V
eq
=
Lecture 21, ACT 3
The primary coil of an ideal transformer is connected to an AC
voltage source as shown. There are 50 turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary.
If V
1
= 120 V, what is the potential drop across
the resistor R ?
(a) 30 V (b) 120 V (c) 480 V
3A
~
c
N
2
N
1
iron
V
2
V
1
R
3B
If 960 W are dissipated in the resistor R,
what is the current in the primary ?
(a) 8 A (b) 16 A (c) 32 A
Lecture 21, ACT 3
If V
1
the resistor R ?
(a) 30 V (b) 120 V (c) 480 V
3A
~
c
N
2
N
1
iron
V
2
V
1
R
The ratio of turns, (N
2
/N
1
) = (200/50) = 4
The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is equal to the ratio
of turns, (V
2
/V
1
) = (N
2
/N
1
)
Therefore, (V
2
/V
1
) = 480 V
Lecture 21, ACT 3
If V
1
the resistor R ?
(a) 30 V (b) 120 V (c) 480 V
3A
~
c
N
2
N
1
iron
V
2
V
1
R
The ratio of turns, (N
2
/N
1
) = (200/50) = 4
The ratio (V
2
/V
1
) = (N
2
/N
1
). Therefore, (V
2
/V
1
) = 480 V
If 960 W are dissipated in the resistor R, what
is the current in the primary ?
(a) 8 A (b) 16 A (c) 32 A
3B
Gee, we didnt talk about power yet.
But, lets assume energy is conservedsince it usually is around here
Therefore, 960 W should be produced in the primary
P
1
= V
1
I
1
implies that 960W/120V = 8 A
Transformers with a Load
~
c
N
2
N
1
iron
V
2
V
1
R
To get that last ACT, you had to use a
general philosophy -- energy
conservation.

An expression for the RMS power flow
looks like this:
P V i
N
N
V
N
N
i V i
rms rms rms rms rms rms rms
= = =
1 1
1
2
2
2
1
2 2 2
Note: This equation simply says that all power delivered by the
generator is dissipated in the resistor ! Energy conservation!!

Lect18 f03

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Lect18 f03

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Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 1

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