Chapter 09 Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis and Respiration
http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/photosynthrxns.gif
Definitions
Photosynthesis
How a Plant Harnesses Light Energy to Make Chemical Energy
Respiration
Turning Chemical Energy into Fuel for Growth, Development and Reproduction
Photosynthesis
http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/photosynthesis.gif
Leaves and Leaf Structure

The Raw Materials of Photosynthesis Enter the Cells of the Leaf
Water and Carbon Dioxide
The Products of Photosynthesis Leave the Leaf

Sugar and Oxygen
Nature of Light
Visible Light Is only a Small Portion of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
p. 108, text
Plants Use Light Energy mostly in the Visible Light Range for PS
Nature of Light
When Light Hits an Object, 3 Possibilities
Absorbed by Object Reflected off Object Transmitted through Object
Colors We See Are actually Light Reflected from an Object

Something that Appears Green Is Reflecting Green Light and either Absorbing or Transmitting the other Wavelengths Plants Reflect Green, but Absorb other Wavelengths for Use in PS
Nature of Light
Plant Color Can Be an Indicator of Plant Health Satellite Imagery (Remote Sensing) Can Be Used to Indicate Crop Health Measures some Visible Light but also Measures Infrared
Drought-Stressed Plants Give off more Infrared Wavelengths Can Use this System to Indicate Weed Impact and other Factors
Nature of Light
Red and Blue Wavelengths most Important for PS Captured by Chloroplasts and Used to Initiate PS Reactions
http://faculty.concord.edu/rockc/intro/sensate.htm
Photosynthetic Reactions
Photos (light) Synthesis (to put together) Light Energy to Chemical Energy Life on Earth Depends on this Process Supplies Our Oxygen
Overall Equation
C = Carbon O = Oxygen H = Hydrogen
Overall Equation
Carbon Dioxide Has 1 Carbon and 2 Oxygen Atoms, Arranged O=C=O in the Molecule of Carbon Dioxide Water Has 2 Hydrogen and 1 Oxygen Atoms, Arranged H=O=H in the Water Molecule
The Overall Equation for PS Is Deceptively Simple In Fact, a Complex Set of Physical and Chemical Reactions must Occur in a Coordinated Manner for the Synthesis of Carbohydrates To Produce a Sugar Molecule such as Sucrose, Plants Require nearly 30 Distinct Proteins that Work within a Complicated Membrane Structure
Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

A Pigment Is any Substance that Absorbs Light The Color of the Pigment Comes from the Wavelengths of Light Reflected Chlorophyll, the Green Pigment Common to all Photosynthetic Cells, Absorbs all Wavelengths of Visible Light Except Green, which It Reflects to Be Detected by Our Eyes

Chlorophyll Is a Complex Molecule
Several Modifications of Chlorophyll Occur among Plants and other Photosynthetic Organisms
All Photosynthetic Organisms Have Chlorophyll a Accessory Pigments Absorb Energy that Chlorophyll a Does not Absorb
Chlorophyll b Xanthophylls Carotenoids (Beta-Carotene)
http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/library/photo/

If a Pigment Absorbs Light Energy, 1 of 3 Things Will Occur Energy Is Dissipated as Heat The Energy may Be Emitted Immediately as a Longer Wavelength (a Phenomenon Known as Fluorescence) Energy may Trigger a Chemical Reaction, as in PS
Chlorophyll Triggers a Chemical Reaction when It Is Associated with Proteins Embedded in a Membrane (as in a Chloroplast)
http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/chlorophyll.jpg
Chloroplasts
Organelles in a Plant Cell Location of Photosynthesis
http://www.lclark.edu/~seavey/Bio100_03/Lecture%20notes/lecture_Feb_11.h
Chloroplasts
Inside the Chloroplast
Intertwined and Stacked Network of more Membranes Thylakoids
Wafer-Like Structures
Granum/Grana
Stack of Thylakoids
Stroma
Areas between Grana
Chloroplast Has 3 Membrane Systems, Forming 3 Compartments
http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Courses/Plant/chloro.html
Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis Takes Place inside these Structures
http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Courses/Plant/chloro.html
Photosynthesis Stages
2-Stage Process
Light Reactions
Require Light to Occur Involves the Actual Harnessing of Light Energy Occur in\on the Grana
Dark Reactions
Do not Need Light to Occur Involve the Creation of the Carbohydrates
Products of the Light Reaction Are Used to Form C-C Covalent Bonds of Carbohydrates Occur in the Stroma
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/chloroplast.jpg
Light Reactions
Electron Transfer
When Light Strikes Magnesium (Mg) Atom in Center of Chlorophyll Molecule, the Light Energy Excites a Mg Electron and It Leaves Orbit from the Mg Atom The Electron Can Be Converted to Useful Chemical Energy
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/lightreactionproject.html
Light Reactions
Photophosphorylation
The Excited Electron (plus Additional Light Energy) eventually Provides Energy so a Phosphate Group Can Be Added to a Compound Called Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP), Yielding Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) ATP Is an Important Stored Energy Molecule
ATP
ATP = Adenosine - (PO4-) - (PO4-) - (PO42-)
Fairly Simple Compound Containing Nitrogen All Macromolecules Are Held Together by Covalent Bonds For some Reason, Phosphate Groups in a String Need a Really, Really Strong Bond to Hold Them Together So the Ones within the String Are Extremely Strong
3 Phosphate Groups Stuck off the End of an Adenosine Molecule The String of 3 Phosphate Groups Is Held Together by Covalent Bonds
Think of the Bond Like a Rope in a Tug-of-War with 2 People Pulling on the Rope in Opposite Directions If someone Comes along and Cuts the Rope the 2 People Will Go Flying They Go Flying off because Lots of Energy Was Being Stored in the Rope and the Energy Was Released as the People Fell When the Bond that Attaches 1 of the Phosphate Groups onto ATP Is Broken, It Becomes ADP Adenosine - (PO4-) - (PO42-) + (PO42-) + Energy
Light Reactions
Photolysis (Hill Reaction)
The 2 Water Molecules Are Split into Hydrogen and Oxygen The Hydrogen Is Attached to a Molecule Called Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP)
Produces NADPH2
The Oxygen Is Given off as Oxygen Gas 2 H20 + NADP + light NADPH2 + O2
Light Reactions
ATP and NADPH2 Are Common Energy-Carrying Molecules in all Plant and Animal Cells ATP Gives up the Phosphate Group when It Is Involved in a Chemical Reaction
This Gives off a Lot of Energy which Helps the Needed Reaction Occur
Same Thing Happens when NADPH2 Gives off the Hydrogen Atoms as Part of a Reaction
It Provides Energy to Drive that Reaction
ATP and NADPH2 Are Renewable or Recyclable Energy Sources
Dark Reactions
Calvin Cycle Carbon Reactions Pathway Do not Require Light Energy to Occur
Do Require Energy Captured by Light Reactions
http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/calvincycle.gif
Dark Reactions
Occur at same Time as Light Reactions Cease Soon if Light Energy Is not Available to Make Light Reaction Products
Exception: some Xerophytes
http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/thylakoidmembrane.gif
Dark Reactions
2 Main Steps
Carbon Dioxide Fixation Sugar Formation
Occur in the Stroma of the Chloroplasts
http://courses.cm.utexas.edu/jrobertus/ch339k/overheads-3/ch19_Dark-reactions.jpg
1. Carbon Dioxide Fixation

Carbon Dioxide Assimilation CO2 Is Incorporated into a 3-Carbon or 4Carbon Chain
C3 Plants C4 Plants
http://www.science.siu.edu/plant-biology/PLB117/JPEGs%20CD/0127.JPG
Carbon Dioxide Fixation

C3 Plants
Most Plants Use an Enzyme Called RuBP Carboxylase (RuBisCo) to Carry out the CO2 Fixation
Enzymes Are Natural Proteins that Help Catalyze/Carry out Reactions Rubisco Is the most Abundant Enzyme on Earth!
This Occurs in the Mesophyll Cells

Palisade or Spongy
Creates a 3-Carbon Product Ready for Sugar Formation Called C3 Plants because the 1st Stable Carbon Chain Made from CO2 Has 3 Carbons C3 Crops
Wheat, Soybeans, Cotton, Tobacco, Small Grains, Legumes, Tomatoes, Potatoes, Peppers, Cucurbits
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/rubisco01.jpg, http://www.palaeos.com/Eukarya/Lists/EuGlossary/Images/Rubisco.gif
C4 Plants
Hatch-Slack Pathway Process of CO2 Fixation for many Plants of Dry or Tropical Origins Plants Use a Different Enzyme Called PEP in the Mesophyll Cells for CO2 Fixation
PEP Carboxylase Has a much Higher Affinity for CO2 than Does Rubisco At Low CO2 Pressures, Rubisco Doesnt Distinguish Well between O2 and CO2 so Stomata usually Have to Be Wide Open for PS to Occur
Creates a 4-Carbon Product

http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/c4pathway.gif

C4 Plants
This 4-Carbon Chain Is then Transported into Bundle Sheath Cells where the CO2 Is Released and then Immediately Fixed by Rubisco as Part of the C3 Cycle
Bundle Sheath Cells Are Specialized Cells that Surround the Vascular Bundles in the Leaves
Same Fixation with Rubisco as in C3 Plants but Occurs in the Bundle Sheath Cells, not Mesophyll Cells
http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~mlavin/b434/graphic/Leafc4a.jpg, http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/c4pathway.gif

Transport of CO2 to the Mesophyll Cells Allows the C4 Plants to Build up a Higher Concentration of CO2 in the Bundle Sheath Cells than what Is Normally Found in the Mesophyll Cells of C3 or C4 Plants

1st Part of Calvin Cycle Occurs in Bundle Sheath Cells of C4 Plants and in Mesophyll Cells of C3 Plants
PEP Carboxylase vs. Rubisco

PEP Carboxylase Works Well at Warm Temperatures but not Optimally at Cool Temps This Is the Reason why C4 Grasses Are Referred to as Warm Season Grasses, and Why They Dont Compete Well with C3 Grasses at Cooler Temps C4 Grasses Have an Edge in Dry Warm Sites or Open Sunny Sites as They Can Keep Leaf Stomata Closed during Mid-Day and Extract every Last CO2 Molecule in the Leaf In Contrast, C3 Grasses that Keep Stomata Closed in Dry Sunny Sites Undergo High Amounts of Respiration

Both Types of Plants Use Energy from ATP and NADPH2 to Carry out the Reactions The Energy from ATP Is Given by ATP Giving up Its 3rd Phosphorus
ATP ADP + P
The Energy from NADPH2 Is Given by NADPH2 Giving up Its Hydrogens

NADPH2 NADP + H2
2. Sugar Formation
Carbon Chain Formed in step 1 Is Converted to Glucose
C6H12O6
Overall PS Reactions and Energy Transfers Can Be Seen in Text
http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/starch_sucrose.jpg
Photosynthesis Logistics
6CO2 + 12H2O + Light C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Carbon Dioxide Source

CO2 Enters Leaves through Stomata by Diffusion
Passive Process
Dissolves in Water Inside the Plant to Become the Bicarbonate Ion (HCO3-)
http://www.westga.edu/~geosci/wgmc/plants_pics.htm
Water Source
Water Enters the Plant through the Roots Moves up through Plants
Some Passive Movement Active Process (Requires Chemical Energy to Occur) during some Parts of the Journey
http://catseye.blogs.com/catseye/2005/03/roots.html
Oxygen Output
Fate of Oxygen Produced by PS
Diffuse out through Stomata Be used in Respiration or other Reactions Only about 40% of Oxygen Produced Is Used by the Plant, so Plants Are a Net Oxygen Producer
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~grange/images/stomata.jpg
Water Output
Fate of Water Produced by PS
Used in other Reactions or Plant Transport Diffuses as Water Vapor out of Leaf through Stomata
plantbiology.stanford.edu/ imagecollection.html
Sugar/Glucose Output
1. Converted to Sucrose

Fate of Glucose Produced by PS

Main Plant Sugar Used by Plants for Growth and Reproduction Common Table Sugar Water Soluble and Readily Transported to Sinks Starch Is a Long-Chain Polymer of many Glucose Molecules Linked Together Water-Soluble to Be Able to Be Mobilized Later by Plants if Needed Common Form of Stored Carbohydrates Mainly Starch: White Potato and Sweet Potato Tubers, Seed Cotyledons, Endosperm
2. Converted to Starch or other Storage Carbs
Sugar/Glucose Output
Fate of Glucose Produced by PS
3. Converted to Cellulose or other Structural Carbohydrate
Long-Chain Polymer of many Glucose Molecules Linked Together Linked with Different Bond than Starch, so Cellulose Is not Water-Soluble Formed by Cellulose and Related Compounds Cell Walls Plant Fibers (Cotton, Hemp, Jute) Wood (Lignin is the main Structural Carbohydrate in Wood)
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Availability of CO2
CO2 Supply Diminishes if Stomates Close Air Movement Replaces CO2 Taken up by Plants On Still Days within Crop Leaf Canopy
CO2 Levels may Drop Below Optimum, Slowing PS Slightly

Availability of CO2
Normal [CO2] Is 400 ppm (0.04%) Increasing [CO2] can Increase Plant Photosynthetic Rates Occurring due to Environmental Changes Artificial Enhancement usually not Practical in Field Production Has Been Used Effectively in some Greenhouse Production

Availability of Water
Water (almost always) Is not a Limiting Factor for PS
So Little Is actually Used (Less than 1% of Water Absorbed) and Plants Are Made up of so much Water
Water Stress that Causes Stomata to Close can Slow or Stop PS due to Lack of CO2
http://www.dentalindia.com/CO2b.jpg

Light Quality (Color)

Chlorophyll Absorbs Light in Red (660 nm) and Blue (450 nm) Wavelengths These Are the Photosynthetic Wavelengths of Light Called Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
http://www.firstrays.com/plants_and_light.htm

Light Duration (Photoperiod)

Plants Need Sufficient Length of Light Period to Produce enough Carbs for Normal Growth Longest Days in Northern Hemisphere Occur in June
December in Southern Hemisphere

Light Intensity (Brightness)

As Light Intensity Increases, PS Rates Increase
Up to a Certain Level of Intensity
Light Saturation Point

PS Reaches Its Maximum Point Increasing Light Intensity no Longer Increases PS Rate
http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~horteng/openroof.htm

Leaf Chlorophyll Content

Pigment that Captures Light Energy and Begins the Transformation of that Energy to Chemical Energy Located in Chloroplasts
About 20 to 100 Chloroplasts/Mesophyll Cell in Leaves
http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en/thumb/3/34/250px-Leaf.jpg

Leaf Chlorophyll Content
Chlorosis is Yellowing of Leaf from Lack of Chlorophyll
If Chlorophyll Is Reduced, PS Will Be Reduced Causes of Chlorosis
Nutrient Deficiencies N and Mg Are Parts of the Chlorophyll Molecule K Needed for Enzyme Activation in Production of Chlorophyll Any other Nutrient Deficiencies that Cause Chlorosis also Reduce PS Diseases
http://toptropicals.com/pics/toptropicals/articles/cultivation/chlorosis/4061.jpg

Temperature
Increasing Temp will Increase Rate of PS, within Normal Ranges Below Normal Ranges, PS Slows or Stops
Cytoplasm (Liquid inside Cells) Slows Moving
Cells may Freeze Chilling can Change Protein and Membrane Structure Causes Cell Content Leakage and Death
http://www.semena.org/agro/diseases2/environmental-stresses-e.htm

Temperature
Above Normal Ranges
Proteins may Change Shape Membranes may Become too Leaky
Leads to PS Stoppage and Possible Cell Death
C3 Plants Have Optimum PS from about 55-75F

Can Carry out PS from 32-95F
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/hottopics/obesity/fat.shtml

Temperature
Above Normal Ranges
C4 Plants Optimum PS 75-95F
Can Carry out PS from 55-105F PEP Enzyme Deactivates below 55F Hatch-Slack Pathway and Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle) of PS no Longer Occur Extra Energy from the Light Reaction actually Destroys Chlorophyll Why Perennial Warm-Season Grasses Tend to Bleach out when It Turns Cold

Temperature
C3 Plants Are Called Cool-Season Plants C4 Plants Are Called Warm-Season Plants

Carbohydrate Translocation
Sugars not Moved out of Mesophyll Cells can Inhibit PS
Feedback Inhibition
Buildup of End Product of a Metabolic Process Reduces Metabolic Production of that Product
As more Sugars Are Needed by the Plant, It can Increase the Rate of PS
Source-Sink Relationship
Source of Sugars (PS) Is Affected by the Demand for Sugars Meristems, Filling Seeds, etc.
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/pressflo.jpg

Leaf Age
Young, Mature Leaves Have Greatest Rate and Output of PS Young, Immature Leaves Have High Rate of PS but Use more of what They Produce for Their Own Growth Mature Leaves have Slower PS Rates Defoliation of Young or Young + Mature Leaves of a Plant Drains the Plant Must Pull from Stored Carbs in Stems and Roots to Regenerate enough Leaves to Provide needed Carbs
Reduces Root Growth Usually Results in Y Losses in Crops
CAM Photosynthesis
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Another Type of PS Carried out only by Xerophytes At Night
Stomata Are Open Plants Fix CO2 into a 4Carbon Product 4-Carbon Product Stored overnight in Vacuole
http://www.ualr.edu/~botany/c4andcam.jpg
CAM Photosynthesis
During the Day
Stomata Are Closed CO2 Is Released from the 4Carbon Produce Normal Light and Dark Reactions occur without Stomata Opening Allows the Plants to Conserve Water during the Day
When Water Is Adequate, these Plants usually Carry out C3 PS

CAM Photosynthesis
CAM Plants
Cacti, Succulents Crops include Pineapple, Tequila Agave
Respiration
Free Energy Is Released and Incorporated into a Form (ATP) that can Be Readily Used for the Maintenance and Development of the Plant
http://www.biol.lu.se/cellorgbiol/dehydrogenase/pop_sv.html
Respiration
Low-Temperature Oxidation of Carbohydrates Carried out by Enzymes and Living Systems Net Reaction Appears as the Reverse of PS
The Individual Reactions that Occur to Achieve the Net Effect Are Entirely Different Reactions Occur in Different Parts of Cells
Chemical Reaction
Net Reaction
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 40 ADP + 40 Phosphates 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 40 ATP
Respiration
Respiration Is the Means to Turn Carbs into Usable Chemical energy (ATP) for many other Plant Reactions including PS All Living Plant and Animal Cells Carry out Respiration Respiration Occurs
At same Time as PS During the Night In Developing and Ripening Fruit In Dormant Seeds
Mitochondria
Occurs in Mitochondria of Cells Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the cytosol of most eukaryotic cells. Their main function is the conversion of the potential energy of food molecules into ATP
http://www.science.siu.edu/plant-biology/PLB117/JPEGs%20CD/0077.JPG
Light Compensation Point

Level of Light Intensity where the Rate of Respiration (CO2 Produced) Equals the Rate of PS (CO2 Consumed) Greater Light Intensity should Result in Net Dry Matter (Carbohydrate Accumulation) Lower Light Intensity will Result in Net Dry Matter Loss over Time Light Compensation Point Is generally Reached for Plants Grown Outdoors May not Be Reached for Full Sun Plants Grown in Shade or for Houseplants Grown Indoors in Inadequate Light
Aerobic Respiration
Requires Oxygen Main Type of Respiration that Occurs in most Situations in Plants and Animals Involves Complete Breakdown of Glucose back to CO2 and Water Not all of the Energy in Glucose Is Converted to ATP Formation
Only about 40% Efficient Extra Energy Is Given off as Heat
In Plants, Heat Quickly Dissipates For Animals, Heat Is Retained to Hold Body Temperature
http://www.kathleensworld.com/mitochondria.jpg
3 Main Respiration Steps

1. Glycolysis
Breakdown of Glucose to a 3-Carbon Compound Called Pyruvate Occurs in Cytosol Some ATP and NADH Are also Formed
Storage Energy Molecules
NADH Is Formed from NAD Similar Type of Energy-Storing Rx as NADP + H2 NADPH2

NAD + H NADH
http://www.med.unibs.it/~marchesi/glycpth2.gif
Respiration Steps
2. Krebs Cycle
Tricarboxylic acid Cycle (TCA Cycle) Citric Acid Cycle Occurs in Mitochondrial Matrix A Cyclic Series of Rxs that Completely Break down Pyruvate to CO2 and Various Carbon Skeletons Skeletons Are Used in other Metabolic Pathways to Make various Compounds
Proteins Lipids Cell Wall Carbohydrates DNA Plant Hormones Plant Pigments Many other Biochemical Compounds
The Step where CO2 Is Given off by the Plant 10 NADH Are Generated
http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~bi107vc/images/mol/krebs_cycle.gif
Respiration Steps
3. Electron Transport Chain
Oxidative Phosphorylation Series of Proteins in the Mitochondria Helps Transfer Electrons (e-) from NADH to Oxygen
Releases a Lot of Energy
Occurs on Mitochondrial Inner Membrane (Proteins Bound to Membrane)

http://www.uccs.edu/~rmelamed/MicroFall2002/Chapter%205/ch05.htm
Respiration Steps
Released Energy Is Used to Drive the Reaction ADP + P ATP
Many ATP Are Made
Oxygen Is Required for this Step Water Is Produced

http://www.uccs.edu/~rmelamed/MicroFall2002/Chapter%205/ch05.htm
Anaerobic Respiration
Fermentation Occurs in Low-Oxygen Environments
Wet or Compacted Soils for Plants After Strong Exertion for Animals
ATP Is still Produced from Glucose but not as Efficiently as with Aerobic Respiration
http://www.jracademy.com/~vinjama/2003pics/fermentation%5B1%5D.jpg
C6H12O6 + O2 2 CH2O5 + 2 H2O + 2 ATP
or
Glucose + Oxygen 2 Ethanol + 2 Water + 2 ATP
Same Rx Used to Produce Alcohol from Corn or to Make Wine or other Consumed Alcohol
Aerobic:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 40 ADP + 40 Phosphates 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 40 ATP
Only 2 ATP Are Formed instead of 40 from Aerobic Respiration
Plant Soon Runs out of Energy Can Begin to Suffer from Toxic Levels of Ethanol and Related Compounds
Extended Periods of Anaerobic Respiration will Seriously Reduced Plant Growth and Yields
Anaerobic: C6H12O6 + O2 2 CH2O5 + 2 H2O + 2 ATP Aerobic: C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 40 ADP + 40 Phosphates 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 40 ATP
Photorespiration
In the "normal" reaction, CO2 is joined with RUBP to form 2 molecules of 3PGA In the process called photorespiration, O2 replaces CO2 in a non-productive, wasteful reaction It is believed that photorespiration in plants has increased over geologic time and is the result of increasing levels of O2 in the atmosphere--the byproduct of photosynthetic organisms themselves The appearance of C4-type plants appears to be an evolutionary mechanism by which photorespiration is suppressed It has long been the dream of biologists to increase the production of certain crop plants, such as wheat, that carry on C3 PS by genetically re-engineer them to perform C4 PS It seems unlikely that this goal will be accomplished in the near future due to the complex anatomical and metabolic differences that exist between C3- and C4-type plants
http://www.marietta.edu/~spilatrs/biol103/photolab/photresp.html
Photorespiration
Respiration Driven by Light Energy Discovered when Scientists Realized that some Plants Have Faster Respiration Rate in Light than in Dark Occurs in Chloroplasts and other Structures in a Photosynthetic Cell Rubisco can React with Oxygen to Start a slightly Different Series of Rxs
Result in a Loss or no Net Gain of Dry Matter for the Plant Less ATP Is Produced from the Photorespiration
http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/webb/BOT311/BOT311-00/PSyn/Image81.gif
Factors Influencing Photorespiration

O2 : CO2 Ratio If Cells Have Low O2 but Higher CO2, Normal PS Calvin Cycle Dominates C4 Plants Have Little Photorespiration because They Carry the CO2 to the bundle Sheath Cells and can Build up High [CO2]
Calvin Cycle Rxs always Favored over Photorespiration
If Cells Have Higher O2 and Lower CO2, Photorespiration Dominates


Light Intensity
Increasing Light Intensity will Increase Energy for the Photorespiration Process and for PS C3 Plants Light-Saturate at Lower Light Intensities than C4 Plants
Reach Their Break-Even Point at much Lower Light Levels due to Increasing Photorespiration

Temperature
Aerobic Respiration and Photorespiration Increase with Temp Plants Have Optimum, Minimum and Maximum Temp Ranges

Net Photosynthesis or Net Assimilation Rate
C4 Plants generally Have Net Assimilation Rates about 2 to 3 Times that of C3 Plants C4 Plants Are often Called Efficient Plants and C3 Plants Called Non-Efficient Plants A Few C3 Plants Have Low Respiration and Similar Assimilation Rates as C4 Plants
Sunflower Peanut

Net Photosynthesis or Net Assimilation Rate
Cooler Temps Are the only Time when C3 Plants Have Higher Net Assimilation Rates than C4 Plants
PEP Carboxylase Needed to Incorporate CO2 into the 4-Carbon Structure no Longer Functions C4 PS Rates Drop Dramatically or Stop
C3 and C4 Plants Differ in Water Use

C4 Plants Can Produce 3 Times as much Dry Matter per Unit of Water as C3 Plants
Factors Affecting Respiration

Kind of Cell or Tissue
Young and Developing Cells (Meristematic Areas) usually Have Higher Respiration Rates Developing and Ripening Fruit and Seeds, too Older Cells and Structural Cells Respire at Lower Rates

Temperature
Respiration generally Has Higher Optimum and Maximum Temps than PS Rxs Can Have Net Dry Matter Loss at High Temps where Respiration Exceeds PS Temp Refers to Temp Inside Plant or Animal Cell, not Air Temp
Using Irrigation to Help Cool the Plant Can Keep the Plant in Net Gain Range

Oxygen
Low O2 Can Reduce Aerobic Respiration and Increase Anaerobic Respiration Low O2 Can Reduce Photorespiration

Light
Can Enhance Rate of Photorespiration Does not Directly Affect other Forms of Respiration

[Glucose]
Adequate Glucose Needed to Carry out Respiration Reductions can Occur
Reduced PS Reduced Flow of Carbohydrates in Plant
Insect Feeding Phloem Blockages

[CO2]
Higher CO2 Levels Reduce Rate of Respiration
Feedback Inhibition
Seldom Occurs except when O2 Levels Are Limited

Flooded, Compacted Soils

[ATP]
Higher [ATP] Reduces Rate of Respiration
Feedback Inhibition
Usually Occurs when other Metabolic Processes Have Slowed or Stopped

Plant Injury
Injury will Increase Respiration Plants Growth Rate Increases in Attempt to Recover
Mechanical Damage Hail Mowing, Grazing, Cultivation, Wind
Plant Synthesizes Compounds to Fight Pests

Insect Feeding Diseases
Some Herbicides Kill Plants by Disrupting or Affecting Respiration

Generally an Indirect Effect Herbicide Disrupts Enzyme Activity or some other Metabolic Process that will Affect Respiration
Plant Mitochondria and Chloroplasts May Have Evolved from Bacteria

Many of the features of the mitochondrial genetic system resemble those found in prokaryotes like bacteria. This has strengthened the theory that mitochondria are the evolutionary descendants of a prokaryote that established an endosymbiotic relationship with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells early in the history of life on earth. However, many of the genes needed for mitochondrial function have since moved to the nuclear genome.

Chapter 09 Photosynthesis and Respiration

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Chapter 09 Photosynthesis and Respiration

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Photosynthesis and Respiration

Leaves and Leaf Structure

The Products of Photosynthesis Leave the Leaf

Colors We See Are actually Light Reflected from an Object

C = Carbon O = Oxygen H = Hydrogen

Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

Chloroplast Has 3 Membrane Systems, Forming 3 Compartments

ATP and NADPH2 Are Renewable or Recyclable Energy Sources

Occur in the Stroma of the Chloroplasts

1. Carbon Dioxide Fixation

Carbon Dioxide Fixation

This Occurs in the Mesophyll Cells

Carbon Dioxide Fixation

Creates a 4-Carbon Product

Carbon Dioxide Fixation

Carbon Dioxide Fixation

Carbon Dioxide Fixation

PEP Carboxylase vs. Rubisco

Carbon Dioxide Fixation

The Energy from NADPH2 Is Given by NADPH2 Giving up Its Hydrogens

Overall PS Reactions and Energy Transfers Can Be Seen in Text

Carbon Dioxide Source

6CO2 + 12H2O + Light C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Fate of Glucose Produced by PS

2. Converted to Starch or other Storage Carbs

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Light Quality (Color)

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Light Duration (Photoperiod)

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Light Intensity (Brightness)

Light Saturation Point

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Leaf Chlorophyll Content

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

C3 Plants Have Optimum PS from about 55-75F

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

When Water Is Adequate, these Plants usually Carry out C3 PS

Light Compensation Point

3 Main Respiration Steps

NADH Is Formed from NAD Similar Type of Energy-Storing Rx as NADP + H2 NADPH2

Occurs on Mitochondrial Inner Membrane (Proteins Bound to Membrane)

Oxygen Is Required for this Step Water Is Produced

Factors Influencing Photorespiration

If Cells Have Higher O2 and Lower CO2, Photorespiration Dominates

Factors Influencing Photorespiration

Factors Influencing Photorespiration

Factors Influencing Photorespiration

Factors Influencing Photorespiration

C3 and C4 Plants Differ in Water Use

Factors Affecting Respiration

Factors Affecting Respiration

Factors Affecting Respiration