Predicate Logic

Proposition
Proposition 5 is an integer

Object Singular term

5

Proposition

5 is an integer

Predicate
is an integer

Singular Terms

To begin our study of predicate

logic, we start with the concept of a singular term. A singular term in a natural language is a linguistic expression that has the function of referring to or naming a particular object or thing.

Singular Terms include . . .

a) Proper names: Peter, Pakistan,

and certain abstract nouns such as patience, heights, knowledge, . . . b) Singular definite descriptions: the man on the balcony, the movie, . . c) Demonstratives: that cat, this button here . . .

Are these singular terms?

1) The most violent animal in the whole 2) 3)

4)
5) 6) 7)

universe every happy person A bird with red feathers snow is white Alexander the Great Beautiful dresses Five

Answer to the Exercises: Are these singular terms?

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.
7.

The most violent animal in the whole universe Yes every happy person No, not about a particular thing. A bird with red feathers No, does not refer to any particular bird. snow is white No, this is sentence. Alexander the Great Yes. A particular person. Beautiful dresses No, not a single thing. Five Yes. A particular number.

Empty
In PL we assume that every name

succeeds in referring to some existing object. This is certainly not true in natural language. Ex, the singular term Santa Claus presumably does not refer to any actual person. Such singular term which fail to refer to anything real are said to be empty.

Singular Statement

A singular statement is any

simple statement with a singular term as the subject, and which ascribes some property to the referent of the singular term.

Examples of Singular Statement

1. The tallest man in the world is

over 2m tall. 2. That insect on the window is a grasshopper. 3. Tom Cruise is an actor. 4. 2 is my lucky number.

Variables and Open Sentences

Use small italic letters x, y,

z, . . . as variables. Gramatically they function as singular terms, but do not refer to a particular object. Think of them as similar to a pronoun like it.

Variables & Open Sentence

Given a complete sentence,

the result of substituting or replacing one or more singular term by a variable is called an open sentence.

Propositional Functions
Example:

Original Sentence: 5 is smaller than 7. ( is true) Open Sentence : x is smaller than 7. (is neither false nor true) because the variables do not refer to particular thing. These are not propositions since they can be declared true or false. They are called propositional functions.

Predicates
A predicates in Predicate logic is any capital letter

such as A, B, C, Z, Q, etc C : is a city in Asia. Z : is a integer number. Q: is a rational number.

They are equivalent to open sentences.

Ex. We might use the letter Cx to translate the

open sentence x is a city in Asia.

Use the following translation scheme:

h: Hong Kong o: Oxford C: is a city in Asia
Cx: x is a city in Asia Ch would mean Hong Kong is a city in Asia,

which is true. Co would means Oxford is a city in Asia, a false sentence.

Exercises Consider these WFFs: Le, Ls, Ss, Se

Translate them into English using the ffg translation

scheme: e: The Earth s: The Sun Lx: x is larger than the Earth. Sx: x is smaller than the moon. Which of the following is true, if any?

More complicated WFFs

In PL, those wffs made up of

predicates and names can combine to form longer wffs. Like ~Le, (Ss ^ Se), (LeLs), etc,

Suppose that predicates and individuals are defined as follows:

f: five t: fifteen Z: is an integer Q: is a rational number Symbolise the propositions: 1. Five is an integer. 2. 15 is a rational number

The proposition can be

3. Five
4. Five 5.

negated or conjoined.
f: five t: fifteen Z: is an integer Q: is a rational number

is not an integer.

and fifteen are rational numbers.

If five is an integer then five is a rational number.

We may also form the expression: Z(x): x is an integer. Q(y): y is a rational number.

Propositional functions.

Quantification of propositional functions

Propositional Logic: and, or, not, if . . . then . . ., if

and only if and variables. Propositional logic does have quantifiers: All poodles are dogs. There is at least one black swan. Only supervisors are allowed to fill in the form. No person can solve this problem.

These sentences cannot be expresses in propositional logic.

Symbolizing the propositional quantifiers

We denote for all x by Vx and the proposition

All integers are rational numbers is denoted by Vx(Z(x) Q(x)).

The symbol Vx is called universal quantifier.
The quantified variable Vx converts the propositional

function Z(x) Q(x) into proposition.

Symbolizing the propositional quantifiers,

There exist at least one x such that x is an

integer and x is a rational number.

If we denote there exists at least one x by x, then

the proposition may be symbolized by x(Z(x) ^ Q(x)).

The symbol is called existential quantifier.

Suppose that predicates and individuals are defined as follows:

S: should be shunned U: is prone to unruly behavior J: is a friend of Josh M: is a friend of mine d: Danielle e: Erika 2. Some of Josh friends are prone to unruly behavior. 3. Anyone who is a friend of Josh is not a friend of mine. 4. If Danielle is a friend of Josh then she is prone to unruly behavior and should be shunned. 5. Some of my friends are friends of Josh and some of Josh friend are prone to unruly behavior.

Symbolise the following: 1. Danielle is friend of Josh and Erica is a friend of mine.

Seatwork: Answer on sheet of yellow pad

1. All DLSU students are intelligent.

Let S(x) = be x is a DLSU student I(x) = be x is intelligent 2. Some one loves me. 3. Snakes are no all poisonous. 4. All glitters is not gold. 5. Some students are both intelligent and hard working. 6. All fruits and vegetables are wholesome and delicious. 7. Some people are neither honest nor truthful. 8. It is not true that every watch keep time.

Answers:
1. 2.

3.
4. 5. 2.

All DLSU students are intelligent. Vx ( S(x) I (x)) Some one loves me. x(L(x) ^ M(x)). Snakes are no all poisonous. x(S(x) ^ - P(x)). All glitters is not gold. Vx ( G(x) - A (x)) Some students are both intelligent and hard working.

x(S(x) ^ (I(x) ^ H(x)).

All fruits and vegetables are wholesome and delicious. Vx ( F(x) ^ V(x)) (W(x) ^ D (x)) 7. Some people are neither honest nor truthful.

x(P(x) ^ - (H(x) v T (x)).

7.

It is not true that every watch keep time. x(W(x) ^

- T(x)).

Assignment
1. All rational numbers are real numbers. 2. All poodles are dogs. 3. Only supervisors are allowed to fill in the form. 4. No person can solve this problem. 5. There is at least one black swan. 6. Some students are good in Mathematics and Physics. 7. Everyone is charitable and compassionate. 8. Some even numbers are multiple of two and five. 9. Every integer is multiple of 10 if and only if it is multiple of 5 and 2. 10. Everyone who studies logic is good in reasoning.

Universe of discourse
Given a propositional function P(x), the universe of

discourse for the variable x is defined to be set from which we may select an object or individual to substitute for x. Rules of quantification denial (QD) Suppose that the universe of discourse is defined for the variable x. then for any propositional function Px: ~ VxP(x) is equivalent to x ~ P(x) and ~ xP(x) is equivalent to Vx ~ P(x)

Examples
No integer is a rational number, i.e. ~ VxP(x). The negation of All integers are rational numbers is

There is at least integer that is not a rational number. Hence the proposition which is equivalent to ~ VxP(x) is x~P(x). The negation of the existentially quantified proposition Some integers are rational is the proposition that it is not the case that some integers are rational numbers. i.e. No integer is a rational number. To paraphrase this For every x in the universe, x is not a rational number and symbolize it Vx ~ P(x). Hence ~ xP(x) is equivalent to Vx ~ P(x).

Two place predicates

Two-place predicate are referred to as relational predicates,

they express a relation between two components. Examples: is greater than, is less than, is taller than, is bigger than We can form propositional function from two-place predicates. Examples; If Y denotes is younger than Y(a,b) denotes the propositional function a is younger than b let J denote John Y (j,b) the expression denotes John is younger than b.

Two-variable propositional functions can be quantified

VxY(x,y) denotes Everybody is younger than y. If we substitute j for y, we obtain the proposition

Everyone is younger than John denoted by VxY(x,j).

Examples
Quantifiers: all, at least one

First order logic: quantifiers for individuals. All squirrels eat nuts. Second order logic: quantifiers for predicates. S = squirrels eats nuts All S involves chewing. Third order logic