Solar Electric Energy Basics:

System Design Considerations

Frank R. Leslie
B. S. E. E., M. S. Space Technology, LS IEEE Adjunct Professor, Florida Tech, COE, DMES
10/1/2008, Rev. 1.3 fleslie @fit.edu; (321) 674-7377 my.fit.edu/~fleslie

 Does Energy Affect our Lives?

Happy New Yorkers out for a Stroll!

Are they having fun? Why did this happen?

FOXnews 8/15/2003
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Energy Considerations for 2050

Fossil-fuel energy will deplete in the future; millions of years to create that much cheap fuel US oil production peaked about 1974; world energy will peak about 2009 or so The US imports about 10 million barrels crude oil/day Renewable energy will become mandatory, and our lifestyles may change Transition to renewable energy must occur well before a crisis occurs

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US RE Resources Differ Widely

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Why use Solar Energy?

Far from utility power lines; costly to extend lines Provide backup power during utility outages
Minor glitch backup might be only for two minutes Hurricane line damage may need two weeks to repair

Cleaner energy with no CO2 emissions Self-satisfaction of using some free energy (but it costs money to get it) Greener than thou syndrome bragging rights I just want it!

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Solar Estimate from FSEC in Cocoa FL

The Sunshine State has as much sunshine as Wyoming

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PV System Engineering Decomposition into Functional Components

Collect & Distribute Energy

Start

Collect Energy

Regulate Energy

Store Energy

Control Energy

Distribute Energy

Use Energy

Each function drives a part of the design, while the interfaces between them will be defined and agreed upon to ensure follow-on upgrades
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A Representative Grid-Intertie Solar Electric System

The energy flow is protected and metered Grid interties vary with the regional restrictions Multiple meters show energy generated and the utility energy supplied and received
http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/PVT/Projects/fpl/kev/main.htm#TOP
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Solar Energy Intensity

Energy from our sun (~1372 W/m2) is filtered through the atmosphere and is received at the surface at ~1000 watts per square meter or less; average is 345 W/m^2 Air, clouds, rain, and haze reduce the received surface energy Capture is from heat (thermal energy) and by photovoltaic cells yielding direct electrical energy

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Energy Usage & Conservation

The loads supported by the system must be minimized to match the available energy Load analysis shows the largest concerns that might be reduced to cut costs Conservation by enhanced building insulation and reduced lighting loads Increased efficiency of energy plants will conserve fossil fuels

Arizona has clearer skies than Florida. Ref.: Innovative Power Systems

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Florida Energy Use Varies with the Time of Day (Daily Living)
Daily load peaking (1 a.m. to midnight graph) megawatts vs. hours

http:

3 - 7 p.m.

7 a.m.

7 - 9 p.m.
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http://www.dep.state.fl.us/energy/fla_energy/files/energy_plan_final.pdf

PV Cell Basics
Semiconductor of transparent positive silicon and negative silicon backing Incoming light (photons) cause energized electrons to move to the top n-silicon and out the connector Nominal voltage of 0.55 V requires series connections to get useful voltage, 17 V Short circuit current is proportional to light intensity

Maximum output occurs when normal to cell is pointed at light (cosine of sun offset angle)

Ref.: FSEC

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PV Response Characteristics
http://www.chuck-wright.com/SolarSprintPV/SolarSprintPV.html

MPP

As light intensity increases, the change in current is much greater than the change in open-circuit voltage; a dim sun still produces voltage The maximum power point (MPP) indicates the load resistance to achieve maximum power for use

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Variations in Surface Energy Affect Potential Capture

A flat-plate collector aimed normal to the sun (directly at it) will receive energy diminishing according to the amount of atmosphere along the path (overhead air mass 1); (you can look at the sun at dawn or dusk) The received energy varies around the World due to local weather; in Central Florida, direct normal radiation is 4.0 to 4.5 kWh/(m2 - day); 4.7 equivalent sun hours Throughout the Contiguous United States, daily solar SUN energy varies from <3.0 to 7.0 kWh/(m2 - day) My house uses about 23 - 40 kilowatt-hours/day

Latitude Angle
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PV Systems
PV modules of 120 W cost about $400 Mounting angles to match sun --- fixed or tracking Average module slope angle is equal to latitude Zoning and regulations --Not In My Back Yard (NIMBYs) problem Protection required for electric line workers due to islanding backfeed

This solar intensity plot for Cocoa FL shows the cloud effect on what otherwise would have been a cosine effect Ref.: FSEC

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Solar Path for Florida Tech 2/21/anyyear

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http://solardat.uoregon.edu/

Solar Energy: Photovoltaic Sunlight to Electricity

Photovoltaic cells typically can extract about 15-17% of incoming solar energy; theoretical is about 31%; $/W is the key (~$3.50/W, 2007) Low voltage direct current is produced at about 0.55 volt per cell; clusters are series-connected for ~17 volts output for charging a 12 volt system Arrays of cells (modules) can be fixed or can track the sun for greater energy gain Storage is required unless the energy is inverted to 120 Vac to synchronously drive the utility grid

World Price for Photovoltaic Modules 1973-98 90.0 80.0

1997 Dollars Per Watt

70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Compiled by Worldwatch Institute

PV prices are falling, though still relatively expensive compared to wind or fossil utility power

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Collector-Module Sizing
Most manufacturers modules now average about 120 watts for ease of handling at installation Larger 285 W modules are 4 ft by 6 ft, 107 pounds, and require two people to use great care in handling and positioning (our field trailer carries one of these) Hardware must secure module to resist winds of ~130 mph based upon zoning codes Module output should be ~10% larger than calculated to allow for aging and darkening of the cover glass After the first 10% decline, there is little change in peak output
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Roof-top Solar Array Computations

Find the south-facing roof area; say 20 ft * 40 ft = 800 ft2 Assume 120 Wp solar modules are 26 inches by 52 inches; 9.4 ft2/120 watt; 12.78 W/ft2 Assume 90% of area can be covered, 720 ft2, ~9202 W and that there are 5.5 effective hours of sun/day; 51 kWh/day The south-facing modules are tilted south to the latitude angle 76 modules would fit the area, but 44 would provide an average home with 30 kWh/day and cost ~$17600 for modules alone, ~one mile of powerline
Siemens Solar SM110 Maximum power rating, 110 W Minimum power rating, 100 W Rated current. 6.3 A Rated voltage, 17.9 V Short circuit current, 6.9 A Open circuit voltage, 21.7 V

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Battery Charge Controller

Limits charge current to protect battery from overheating and damage that shortens life Disconnects battery loads if voltage falls too low (10.6 V is typical) Removes charge current if voltage rises too high (14V is typical) Regulates charge voltage to avoid battery water gassing Diverts output of source to a secondary load (water heater or electric furnace) if battery is fully charged Saves energy wisely
Soltek Mark IV 20 Amp Regulator

Big as a breadbox for a 4 kW inverter

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Power Line Outage Protection

Storage for utility power outages requires batteries Two or three days with no sun is possible; design for it by adding more storage or array surface Segregate important or critical loads
At least one light per room

Use a cable going to each room for a light and put on one 15A circuit breaker Connect that breaker to a transfer switch to substitute inverter power when needed

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Storage Batteries
Lead-acid (car) batteries are most economical; but must be deep-cycle type Critical rating is 20-hour value or Reserve Capacity (RC) in minutes at 25A load Charge cycle is ~70% efficient -- rather wasteful Requires maintenance to ensure long life A home might have ten of these batteries Need to know the length of time without full sun in days Inverter must match series battery voltage

Soltek DeepCycle Battery AP-27 12 Vdc, 115 A-hr 20-hour rate

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Energy Storage
Battery banks are current practice Hydrogen gas from charging must be vented outside Batteries should be kept warm (above 60F) for full capacity Charge controller needed for large systems to prevent overcharging Deep discharge reduces expected life; ~5000 cycles Float voltage maintains full charge without gassing Low voltage disconnect switches are recommended
The battery on the left is the size of a car battery; the one on the right has much more capacity

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Inverter
The inverter converts low voltage (12V to 100s V) direct current to 120 Vac Synchronous inverters may be inter-tied with power line to reduce billable energy In net metering states, the energy is metered at the same rate going into and out of the electrical grid --- no storage required (except for outages)! Loads can use 12 volt lowvoltage directly at higher efficiency with special lamps

Trace Legend 4 kilowatt Inverter

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Loads
Household load analysis estimates the peak and average power and energy required Some might be reduced or time-shifted to decrease system costs Incandescent lamps produce far more heat than light; CFLs provide ~100 W light equivalent at 27 W load
27 watt (100 W equivalent) Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

CFL Costs without replacement labor: $21.30 Incandescent Costs with replacement labor: $39.98 ____________________________________ CFL Costs with replacement labor: $23.30 Incandescent Costs with replacement labor: $56.54

Hint: You can buy a CFL at a large local discount store for $4.68 or six for $7.00!

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Load Analysis Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet program like Excel will speed analysis of the various loads, their use time, peak power, and energy required Once done, modifications for other systems are easy List the loads, enter the power, time per day, and compute the rest From total energy required and total power, one can compute the size of solar modules and batteries

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Energy Load Assessment

Site: Classroom
Load Power, W No. Daily Use, hr Energy, kWh/day 10.24 4.80 2.4 0.12 0.037 17.597 kWh/day 535.6 kWh/mo 6427 kWh/year Area = 25ft* 30ft = 750 ft2 Energy Density = 23 Wh/day/ft2

Fluorescent Lamp PC & Monitor Projector Laptop Computer Vacuum Cleaner Peak Power Simultaneous Power

40 200 600 60 1560 1560 2460

2*16 = 32 1 1 1 1

8 24 4 2 0.023

8766 hr/avg mo

730.5 hr/avg mo

30.4375 avg. day / avg mo

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Load Analysis for a Yacht

Energy Transmission
Solar power is expensive, so design wires for 1% loss instead of usual 3 to 5% for utility power Use higher voltage (120Vac for long lines) instead of 12 Vdc Spend more on larger wire than normal to reduce resistance loss Battery and inverter wires might be AWG #0 or 2 or larger Inverter output is 120Vac, so AWG#12 and 14 are common for 20A and 15A home service Danger with batteries is not shock but flash burns and flying molten metal Special dc-rated fuses and circuit breakers are required

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Some Important Electrical Information

P = EI = E2/R = I2R, where P is power (instantaneous), E is electromotive force, I is intensity or current, and R is resistance Energy = Pt, where t is the time that power flows V = IR for a load or E = IR for a source, where V is voltage drop across resistor Wire size numbers roughly double the area and halve the resistance for every three size number changes #18 AWG is used in ordinary lamp cord (zip cord) #18 AWG has a resistance of 6.385 ohms per 1000 ft #12 AWG has a resistance of 1.588 ohms per 1000 ft #9 AWG has a resistance of 0.7921 ohms per 1000 ft #6 AWG has a resistance of 0.3951 ohms per 1000 ft #3 AWG has a resistance of 0.197 ohms per 1000 ft
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Cost Analysis Spreadsheet

PV System Homework Renewable Energy Class PV Design for Cabin Prof. Frank R. Leslie
10/1/2008

Loads 1 1 1 1

Type CFL CFL CFL Radio

Power (W) Time (h) Energy (Wh) Comments 13 3 39.0 Daily use 13 0.5 6.5 19 2 38.0 15 3 45.0

Total

60 max watts

128.5 Wh Total

Margin 50% Margined Load 90 W max 192.75 Wh/day Energy Nominal wire amps 9.5 A (Step 1) Sun-hours per day 5.0 sun-hours December average For approximately 192.75 Wh, the Dec. 5.0 sun hours requires PV to yield 38.55 watts PV Cabin Use 2 days per week Adjusted average energy 55.1 Wh 38.55 W module suggests you use a 40.0 W Battery 12 V Indicated Wh Indicated Ah Battery size (Discharging only some Inverter Size Cost Estimates PV Battery Inverter Balance of system Total System Cost Line Cost $ 5,000 /mile Break-even length Better to use solar? Discharge Allowed 20% Wh Ah Ah 963.75 Wh extends the life of the battery.) 25% Margin 1.26 NEC code 112.50 W including margin 11.8 A per watt PV $1 per watt a.c. out per Ah Step 2a Step 2b $385.56 subtotal Step 2c 20% add-on for BOS

192.75 16.1 80.3 20%

$5 $1 $192.75 $80.31 $112.50 $77.11 $462.68

1.00 mile to cabin 5,000 estimated cost for utility line to cabin 0.093 miles 489 feet

Yes, the utility line is too costly!

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Generic Trades in Energy

Energy trade-offs are required to make rational decisions PV is expensive ($5 per watt for hardware + $5 per watt for shipping and installation = $10 per watt) compared to wind energy ($1.5 per watt for hardware + $5 per watt for installation = $6 per watt total) Are Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) better to use?

Ref.: www.freefoto.com/ pictures/general/ windfarm/index.asp?i=2

Ref.: http://www.energy.ca.gov/ education/story/storyimages/solar.jpeg

Photo of FPLs Cape Canaveral Plant by F. Leslie, 2001

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Conclusion
Solar electric energy is best applied where the cost justifies; remote from the grid or for independent backup power True costs of fossil-fuel pollution and subsidies are not easily found -- controversies exist PV costs are falling, but fossilfuel costs will soon surpass them At that time, PV will compete with wind energy, which is currently competitive with fossil fuels
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Thank you! Questions? ? ?

My website: my.fit.edu/~fleslie for presentations
Roberts Hall weather and energy data: my.fit.edu/wx_fit/roberts/RH.htm
DMES Meteorology Webpage: my.fit.edu/wx_fit/?q=obs/realtime/roberts

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Is a Solar Roof Practical?

Sun intensity at surface ~1000 watt / square meter PV cells about 15% efficient = ~150 watt / square meter
Roof might be about 20 x 40 feet = 800 square feet; 90% coverage = 720 square feet A 120 watt solar module is about 26 inches x 52 inches = ~ 9.4 sq. ft, thus peak power production is ~12.78 watt / square ft 720 square feet*(12.8 watt/square feet) = 9202 watts peak power Optimally, roof array could yield 9202 watts for 5.5 hours/average day = 51 kWh each day on average; average house might need 30 kWh Storage would provide energy at night and during cloudy weather, but increases the cost Current cost estimates are about $5/W & $0.06 to $0.20 per kWh vs. $0.07 from utility Utility line extension costs about $18,000 to $50,000 per mile

References: Books, etc.

Brower, Michael. Cool Energy. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992. 0-262-02349-0, TJ807.9.U6B76, 333.7940973. Duffie, John and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 920 pp., 1991 Home Power magazine. Ashland OR. www.homepower.com

References: Internet
http://geothermal.marin.org/ on geothermal energy http://mailto:energyresources@egroups.com http://www.dieoff.org. Site devoted to the decline of energy and effects upon population http://www.ferc.gov/ Federal Energy Regulatory Commission http://www.humboldt1.com/~michael.welch/extras/battvoltandsoc.pdf http://www.siemenssolar.com/sm110_sm100.html PV Array http://www.soltek.ca/products/solarmod.htm http://www.soltek.ca/index.htm http://www.ips-solar.com/yourproject/costanalysis.htm Cost analysis http://www.ips-solar.com/yourproject/resource.htm Energy analysis http://www.aep.com/Environmental/solar/power/ch5.htm Renewable energy http://ens.lycos.com/ens/dec2000/2000L-12-01-01.html